Bioleaching study for low grade primary sulfides at Collahuasi

C. Lorca
Collahuasi
Baquedano 902, Iquique, Chile
cxlorca@collahuasi.cl

ABSTRACT
Collahuasi performed a preliminary study to measure the response of low
grade primary ores of the Rosario deposit to bioleaching. The study
includes the chemical and mineralogical characterization of the ores, the
search for native bacteria and their isolation and ore adaptation, shaker
tests with mesophilic and thermophilic bacteria, preparation of different
cultures, and one meter height inoculated column tests with 1 size
samples at 60, 77 and 113 F.
Results indicate that Rosario ores contained mesophilic and moderate
thermophilic bacteria and all the ores under study showed to be compatible
and amenable for bioleaching. The highest extraction rate is reached at a
higher temperature and acid consumptions are moderate to high.

INTRODUCTION
Collahuasi began to study potential leachable resources in 2001 in order to
sustain or increase the production capacity of the Oxide Plant, programmed
to operate until 2008 with the original reserves.
The main potential resources are low grade primary sulfides that will be
generated from Rosario mine operation from 2004 until 2032. These
resources are estimated at 1.1 billion ton with an average grade of 0.36 %
CuT at a 0.2 %CuT cut off grade.
TESTWORK
Program planning and execution
The study was conducted at CIMM T&S laboratories in Antofagasta,
assisted by the Laboratorio de Tecnologa Minera from Universidad
Catolica del Norte - Antofagasta. The program test and protocols were
prepared with the support of Mr. Randolph Scheffel, international
consultant, and Mr. Francisco Arriagada, IDESOL consultant. The
mineralogical study was performed by MAM Ltd., and the sequential copper
analysis was performed by CIMM T&S La Serena.
Ore samples and characterization
Rosario sulfides were classified into 27 geological units (GU) using as
criteria rock type, alteration and mineralization. Rock types include
andesites, sediments, three different porphyries and rhyolite. Alteration
facies include potassic-propilitic, sericitic, biotitic or argilic. Mineralization is
mainly chalcopyrite followed by chalcosite and bornite. The GU
classification and estimated contributions are shown in Figure 1.
To conduct the test work, eight samples representing the main GU were
prepared from 4 drill cores. Those samples represent 82 % of the
resources. See Figure 2.
Sample preparation
To prepare the sample composites, each sample was crushed and
screened into four size fractions -1 + , - + , - + 10 # and 10
#. Each fraction was accurately sampled to be characterized and also
stored in separated drums.

Figure 1. Geological Units. Estimated values.

UG

Lithology

Alteration

Mineralization

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27

Andesita - Sedimento
Riolita
Prfido Collahuasi
Prfido Ins - Prfido Rosario
Prfido Ins - Prfido Rosario
Andesita - Sedimento Volcnico
Prfido Ins - Prfido Rosario
Andesita - Sedimento Volcnico
Prfido Collahuasi
Prfido Collahuasi
Prfido Collahuasi
Andesita - Sedimento Volcnico
Cualquier Litologa
Cualquier Litologa
Riolita
Cualquier Litologa
Cualquier Litologa
Cualquier Litologa
Cualquier Litologa
Cualquier Litologa
Cualquier Litologa
Cualquier Litologa
Cualquier Litologa
Cualquier Litologa
Cualquier Litologa
Cualquier Litologa
Cualquier Litologa

Roca fresca, Alt. K, Propiltica, Hornfelds

Alteracin Serictica
Alteracin Serictica
Alteracin Serictica
Alteracin Biottica Clortica
Alteracin Serictica
Roca fresca, Alt. K, Propiltica
Alteracin Biottica y Biottica Clortica
Alteracin Arglica
Roca fresca, Alt. K, Propiltica
Alteracin Serictica
Alteracin Arglica
Alteracin Serictica
Alteracin Arglica
Roca fresca, Alt. K, Propiltica
Alteracin Arglica
Alteracin Serictica
Alteracin Biottica - Biottica Clortica
Alteracin Biottica - Biottica Clortica
Alteracin Serictica
Alteracin Arglica
Roca fresca, Alt. K, Propiltica, Hornfelds
Alteracin Arglica
Roca fresca, Alt. K, Propiltica, Hornfelds
Alteracin Biottica Clortica
Roca fresca, Alt. K, Propiltica, Hornfelds
Alteracin Biottica Clortica

Primario
Primario
Primario
Primario
Primario
Primario
Primario
Primario
Primario
Primario
Secundario Dbil
Primario
Secundario Dbil
Primario
Primario
Secundario Dbil
Secundario en Pirita
Primario
Secundario Dbil
Secundario
Secundario
Secundario Dbil
Secundario en Pirita
Secundario en Pirita
Secundario
Secundario
Secundario en Pirita
Total

CuT
(%)
0.35
0.36
0.35
0.44
0.39
0.37
0.40
0.40
0.36
0.36
0.44
0.38
0.44
0.37
0.29
0.45
0.40
0.39
0.46
0.49
0.47
0.46
0.41
0.36
0.50
0.45
0.30
0.36

Ore
(t)
321,119,042
175,479,495
67,772,938
48,914,626
4,102,620
156,806,267
44,035,027
19,644,383
31,201,915
19,445,756
1,759,609
67,779,682
5,252,446
50,640,714
75,204,893
6,222,058
15,074,980
2,963,760
1,102,440
3,402,117
2,271,208
2,129,460
5,876,113
3,960,660
119,820
1,645,492
214,080
1,134,141,602

Fines contribution
(t)
(%)
1,134,348
27.50
625,332
15.16
234,104
5.67
212,818
5.16
16,147
0.39
581,220
14.09
174,448
4.23
79,024
1.92
111,013
2.69
69,735
1.69
7,692
0.19
256,410
6.22
23,220
0.56
189,738
4.60
221,100
5.36
27,828
0.67
60,393
1.46
11,418
0.28
5,126
0.12
16,793
0.41
10,768
0.26
9,758
0.24
24,251
0.59
14,187
0.34
602
0.01
7,400
0.18
651
0.02
4,125,525
100.00

Figure 2. Sample origin

Geological
Unit

Number of
drills

1
2
3
4
6
7
12
14

5
2
6
23
15
1
4
2

Total meters
included in
the composite
98
10
181
675
303
4
34
8
1,313

Total

Average
grade
(% CuT)
0.40
0.51
0.46
0.48
0.42
0.55
0.41
0.43
0.46

Total
sample
(Kg)
218
22
342
1567
621
9
70
16
2863

Unit
contribution
(%)
27.5
15.2
5.7
5.2
14.1
4.2
6.2
4.6
82.6

Chemical characterization
A sequential copper analysis was implemented, associating the sulphuric
acid soluble fraction with the easy soluble copper (oxides), the cyanide
soluble fraction with the moderately soluble copper (secondary sulphides)
and the refractory fraction with the insoluble copper (mainly chalcopyrite).
In addition, total sulphur and sulphate sulphur were analyzed to calculate
sulphide mineral distribution. Total iron and manganese were analyzed as
they represent the main impurities related with the leaching process. See
Figure 3.
Figure 3. Chemical analysis
Contrib

UG

CuT

FeT

Mn

S (T)

S (Sulf.)

S (SO4)

CO3

CuSCit

CuSS

CuSCN

CuR

(%)

(%)

(%)

(%)

(%)

(%)

(%)

(%)

(%)

(%)

(%)

0.410

3.980

0.160

1.430

1.430

< 0.001

1.200

0.016

0.020

0.054

0.337

27.50

0.480

3.150

0.046

0.820

0.820

< 0.001

0.110

0.02

0.023

0.135

0.322

15.16

0.510

1.970

0.005

1.940

1.940

< 0.001

0.100

0.012

0.017

0.089

0.405

5.67

0.545

2.290

0.039

1.750

1.750

< 0.001

0.220

0.013

0.015

0.047

0.484

5.16

0.450

5.070

0.150

2.410

2.410

< 0.001

0.490

0.02

0.026

0.079

0.345

14.09

UG
(%)

0.520

1.550

0.029

0.870

0.870

< 0.001

0.140

0.011

0.012

0.020

0.488

4.23

12

0.425

8.080

1.360

1.950

1.950

< 0.001

6.550

0.015

0.016

0.037

0.372

6.22

14

0.380

6.900

0.660

3.520

3.520

< 0.001

2.140

0.028

0.031

0.044

0.305

4.60

0.450

4.117

0.231

1.667

1.667

0.000

1.143

0.017

0.021

0.071

0.358

82.63

Average

CuSS = Soluble Cu in sulphuric acid

CuSCN = soluble copper in Sodium cyanide

CuR = Refractory copper

Mineralogical characterization
Mineralogical characterization was performed with optical microscope and
supported with X-ray diffraction, to identify copper and gangue species.
See Figure 4.

Figure 4. Mineralogical characterization

Copper
ores

Gangue

Calcopirita
Calcosina
Covelina
Bornita
Enargita
Atacamita
Brochantita
Crisocola
Pseudomalaquita
Pirita
Molibdenita
Magnetita
Hematita
Limonita
Rutilo
Subtotal
Calcita
Clorita
Biotita
Illita
Sericita
Caolinita
Montmorillonita
Anfibola
Apatito
Hidrobiotita
Granate
Cuarzo
Epidota
Titanita
Jarosita
Plagioclasa
Piroxeno
Pirofilita
Feld. Potsico
Turmalina
Yeso
Subtotal
Total

CuFeS2
Cu2S
CuS
Cu5FeS4
Cu3AsS4
Cu2Cl(OH)3
Cu4SO4(OH)6
CuSiO3-2H2O
Cu2SO4(OH)6
FeS2
MoS2
Fe3O4
Fe2O3
FeOOH
TiO2

GU 1
(%)
0.97
0.06
0.01
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.03
0.02
1.99
0.04
0.28
0.08
0.20
0.03
3.71
5.07
2.40
2.76
4.87
19.01
6.82
4.46
5.60
0.10
1.31
0.00
17.70
1.48
0.00
0.00
17.70
0.00
2.49
4.55
0.00
0.00
96.30
100.01

GU 2
(%)
1.11
0.06
0.05
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.02
0.01
0.02
0.68
0.06
0.21
0.04
0.04
0.11
2.41
2.63
2.49
1.36
3.80
10.52
9.43
3.47
2.90
0.15
1.36
0.00
24.49
4.63
0.00
0.00
24.49
0.00
0.00
5.90
0.00
0.00
97.59
100.00

GU 3
(%)
1.26
0.03
0.00
0.04
0.01
0.02
0.00
0.01
0.02
2.75
0.02
0.03
0.21
0.00
0.07
4.47
1.29
0.12
0.01
2.48
15.51
6.95
4.55
2.85
0.00
0.13
0.00
30.09
0.02
0.00
0.00
24.06
0.00
2.53
4.64
0.28
0.01
95.52
99.99

GU 4
(%)
1.48
0.02
0.01
0.01
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.04
2.23
0.07
0.03
0.10
0.00
0.30
4.29
1.24
0.06
0.07
3.59
18.65
4.46
5.47
1.37
0.13
1.89
0.00
28.94
0.14
0.77
0.00
23.15
0.00
2.43
3.34
0.00
0.00
95.70
99.99

GU 6
(%)
0.99
0.09
0.02
0.01
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.03
0.02
3.80
0.01
0.15
0.01
0.03
0.07
5.23
2.59
2.09
2.41
3.74
15.55
4.65
4.56
1.43
0.14
0.67
0.97
30.15
1.52
0.00
0.00
18.09
1.52
0.00
4.65
0.00
0.05
94.76
99.99

GU 7
(%)
1.46
0.01
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.02
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.66
0.02
0.02
0.16
0.00
0.22
2.57
0.00
0.50
0.68
7.60
15.81
11.81
5.79
2.90
0.15
0.68
0.00
24.53
0.08
0.00
0.00
18.40
0.13
0.00
8.26
0.00
0.11
97.43
100.00

GU 12
(%)
1.03
0.02
0.00
0.07
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.02
0.00
2.91
0.00
0.05
0.00
0.00
0.06
4.16
2.09
5.44
5.61
3.01
12.52
5.61
2.75
0.00
0.12
1.08
4.66
24.28
1.23
1.28
0.00
24.28
0.00
0.00
1.87
0.00
0.04
95.85
100.01

GU 14
(%)
0.96
0.02
0.00
0.01
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.02
0.04
5.90
0.03
0.03
0.00
0.00
0.00
7.01
2.39
3.51
3.70
4.60
11.94
6.42
3.68
3.95
0.26
1.24
1.78
22.22
1.40
1.46
0.00
22.22
0.00
0.00
2.14
0.00
0.09
92.99
100.00

A comparison exercise was done between the sequential chemical assay

and the mineralogical study, related with chalcopyrite content. See Figures
5 and 6.

Figure 5. Fine copper contribution according mineralogy (%)

GU 1
82.24
11.73
1.63
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
2.56
1.84
27.50

Calcopirita
Calcosina
Covelina
Bornita
Enargita
Atacamita
Brochantita
Crisocola
Pseudomalaquita
GU contribution

GU 2
78.82
9.83
6.81
0.00
0.00
0.00
2.25
0.72
1.57
15.16

GU 3
85.09
4.67
0.00
4.94
0.94
2.22
0.00
0.67
1.46
5.67

GU 4
92.11
2.87
1.19
1.14
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
2.69
5.16

GU 6
75.84
15.90
2.94
1.40
0.00
0.00
0.00
2.28
1.64
14.09

GU 7
96.27
1.52
0.00
0.00
0.00
2.21
0.00
0.00
0.00
4.23

GU 12
84.14
3.77
0.00
10.46
0.00
0.00
0.00
1.64
0.00
6.22

GU 14
88.41
4.25
0.00
1.68
0.00
0.00
0.00
1.79
3.87
4.60

Average
contribution
82.54
9.52
2.37
1.53
0.06
0.27
0.41
1.64
1.66
100.00

Figure 6. Fine copper contained in chalcopyrite (%)

100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
1

12

14

Average

GU

Chemical characterization

Mineralogical characterization

Preliminary studies
Bottle roll tests
This test measures copper extraction and sulphuric acid consumption using
1 Kg of sample at size 10 # Tyler under constant acidity. Three pH
levels were used 1.0, 1.5 and 2.0. Sampling, pH control and acid addition
was made at 1, 2, 4, 8, 24, 48, 72 and 96 hours. Figure 7 shows a
summary from 45 tests.

Figure 7. Bottle roll tests summary

Net acid consumption
(Kg/t)
(Kg/Kg Cu)
59.0
110.6
52.8
106.6
26.5
85.9

CuT extraction
(%)
13.0
12.3
8.1

GU

pH

1.0
1.5
2.0

1.0
1.5
2.0

32.3
18.2
12.0

44.0
27.6
32.0

16.2
13.8
9.3

1.0
1.5
2.0

17.7
11.4
6.2

25.4
18.1
13.9

14.0
12.4
9.5

1.0
1.5
2.0

28.7
14.6
8.5

53.1
29.0
20.1

10.2
9.8
8.3

1.0
1.5
2.0

49.8
33.2
17.2

56.7
40.3
33.2

20.3
18.6
12.3

1.0
1.5
2.0

24.8
15.7
12.2

91.5
59.9
48.9

5.5
5.1
5.0

12

1.0
1.5
2.0

104.7
62.2
34.0

221.7
158.2
127.9

11.3
9.2
6.3

14

1.0
1.5
2.0

50.3
20.7
26.6

83.4
37.3
72.0

16.0
14.8
9.6

Bioleaching laboratory studies

Liquid and solids samples were taken at the mine site in sterile flasks, a
total of 56 bacterial growth tests were done at 25 C and 45 C during 6
days in a media culture for ferroxidans microorganisms.
The strongest five populations were selected to conduct a second test to
adapt them to a mineral media. A composite prepared with GU 1, 3, 4, 6
and 12 was used in this stage. The best cultures, mesophilic and moderate
thermophilic, were selected to prepare inocules for column campaigns. The
mesophilic culture presented thiobacillus ferroxidans, leptospirillum
ferroxidans and sulfobacillus. Moderate thermophilic culture presented
mainly leptospirillum.
A third bioleaching flask campaign was run using both the mesophilic and
the thermophilic cultures and individual UG samples 1, 3, 4, 6 and 12. See
figures 8 and 9.

Fig. 9 Extraction with thermophilic culture

100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0

100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0

Extraccin (% CuT)

Extraccin (% CuT)

Fig. 8 Extraction with mesophilic culture

19

26

14

Dias de cultivo
UMET 1

UMET 3

UMET 4

UMET 6

UMET 12

UMET 1

Mesophilic bioleaching (25 C)

Ore
UMET 1
UMET 3
UMET 4
UMET 6
UMET 12

(%)
38.1
43.5
33.8
60.0
37.7

CuT extraction
dia
pH
26
2.9
26
2.2
26
2.3
26
2.6
8
3.4

22

27

35

43

Dias de cultivo

Eh (mV)
592
656
643
605
560

UMET 3

UMET 4

UMET 6

UMET 12

Thermophilic bioleaching (45 C)

Max. Population
(mo/ml)
8.42E+09
6.20E+09
4.90E+09
5.15E+09
8.50E+09

Ore
UMET 1
UMET 3
UMET 4
UMET 6
UMET 12

(%)
72.0
55.0
61.1
72.5
44.0

CuT extraction
dia
pH
43
1.7
43
1.5
43
1.5
43
1.7
43
2.1

Eh (mV)
629
657
643
625
596

Max. Population
(mo/ml)
6.40E+09
4.56E+09
4.92E+09
5.50E+09
6.10E+09

Bioleaching in columns
The tests were performed in 6 diameter 1 meter height columns with about
30 Kg of sample prepared with a defined size distribution. To keep careful
temperature control, three isolated small rooms were kept at constant
temperature. Irrigation was intermittent applying solution at a rate of 10
l/h/m2, with one day rinse and a two or three days rest period, previous to
the inoculation an acid preconditioning was applied. Total operation time
was 217 days. Tests at 15 C and 25 C were inoculated with mesophilic
cultures and tests at 45 C were inoculated with moderate thermophilic
cultures.
All the irrigation solution was prepared diluting the industrial plant raffinate
to 8 gpl acid, 0.3 gpl Cu and 2 gpl total iron.
The drainage was sampled and composited in a sequence that covers
increasing periods of time. Both On and Off samples were analyzed for Cu,
FeT, Fe+2, Mn, Mg, Ca, Na, K, SiO2, As, total sulphur and sulphates.
Additionally, pH, redox potential and bacterial counting were
instantaneously measured. Copper extraction, acid consumption, bacterial
behavior and impurities behavior were measured. Summary results are
shown in Figure 9, 10 and 11.

Figure 9. Columns tests results

Column

1B
2B
3B
4B
5B
6B
7B
8B
9B
10B
11B
12B
13B
14B
15B
16B

Ore

GU 1

GU 3
GU 4
GU 6

Temp.
(C)

Irrig /rest

15
45
45
45
15
45
15
45
15
15
25
25
25
45
45
45

1/3
1/2
1/3
1/3
1/3
1/3
1/3
1/3
1/3
1/3
1/2
1/3
1/3
1/2
1/3
1/2

CuT

Extraction (%)
CuS(S+CN)

CuR

22.89
40.43
42.59
42.20
17.59
35.34
12.21
29.82
26.06
27.65
30.25
29.04
28.64
46.59
43.68
47.74

57.39
68.47
66.03
70.30
34.71
52.78
42.25
59.02
62.68
64.56
63.08
66.37
62.26
67.88
69.58
72.43

13.47
35.29
42.47
38.38
7.22
23.38
4.58
21.21
11.48
16.65
9.95
15.68
16.94
35.04
35.63
38.00

Net acid consumption Bact. population (mo/ml)

(Kg/t)
(Kg/Kg Cu
max.
min.
35.60
62.18
52.44
53.69
3.08
8.14
8.64
15.92
24.20
24.10
33.29
30.77
27.98
54.59
42.28
55.87

35.57
36.43
30.99
31.39
3.75
4.76
13.91
10.28
20.79
20.28
22.76
24.01
22.23
25.30
22.37
26.34

1.00E+08
1.70E+08
3.10E+08
1.30E+08
3.10E+07
1.40E+07
2.60E+07
2.80E+07
4.70E+07
6.30E+07
4.60E+07
8.60E+07
4.50E+07
5.30E+07
5.10E+07
1.20E+07

1.90E+06
1.40E+07
1.90E+07
1.40E+07
2.40E+06
4.50E+06
2.50E+06
7.90E+06
6.90E+06
2.80E+06
4.90E+06
6.40E+06
3.90E+06
2.10E+06
1.90E+06
1.50E+05

Size fraction + 1/4"

Start
End
92.33
92.33
92.33
92.33
92.30
92.30
92.30
92.30
92.30
92.30
92.30
92.30
92.30
92.30
92.30
92.30

61.92
51.68
52.89
52.26
88.71
84.61
87.75
85.14
76.66
76.92
75.20
75.48
75.87
67.11
65.98
69.25

Figure 10. Copper extraction at 45 C

Col 15

GU 6
Col 14

Col 16

GU
Col 3

Col 2

Col 4

GU 3
Col 6

GU 4
Col 8

(XG)

Ln(XG)

(%)

(%)

(%)

(%)

(%)

(%)

(%)

(%)

-1 1/2" + 3/4"
-3/4" + 1/4"
-1/4" + 10 #
- 10 #

3.29
2.40
1.19

33.17
45.11
67.27
69.42

26.15
46.00
65.45
72.02

32.20
52.89
67.27
69.42

20.58
44.96
63.46
70.23

35.59
49.88
65.38
70.69

28.57
48.24
65.38
69.54

20.23
44.00
52.08
35.94

19.30
33.33
47.27
38.47

80

Rec. CuT (%) = -18.534Ln(Xg)+ 88.38

70

R2 = 0.9917

Rec. (% CuT)

60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0.0

0.5

1.0

1.5

2.0

2.5

3.0

3.5

4.0

Ln (XG) (mm)

Col 14
Col 2
Col 6

Col 15
Col 3
Col 8

Col 16
Col 4
Linear (Col 14)

Fig. 11. Extraction vs % Refractory copper

80

Extraction CuT (%)

70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
70

75

80

85

90

95

% Cu R

Bottle - pH 1.5
flask with thermophilic culture
Columns with mesophilic culture

flask with mesophilic culture

Bottle - pH 1.0
Columns with thermophilic culture

100

CONCLUSIONS
1

Ore characterization shows that there is a good correlation between

the refractory copper fraction estimated from the copper sequential
analysis and the chalcopyrite content from the mineralogical study.

From the bottle roll tests, the highest recovery obtained by GU 6 is

related with the lowest chalcopyrite content. The lowest recovery
obtained by GU 7 is related with the highest chalcopyrite content too.
The highest acid consumptions registered by GU 1 and 12 is
associated with the rock type, andesite or volcanic sediment, with a
potassic-propilitic or argilic alteration. The lowest acid consumers are
GU 2, 3, 4 and 6, whose lithology is porphyry or rhyolite with sericitic
alteration.

The bioleaching laboratory flask studies, suggest the ore samples

from the mine site were able to generate native bacterial populations.
For the mesophiles tests (25 C) final extractions were 34 to 60 % in
26 days and for moderate thermophiles tests (45 C) were 44 to 72 %
in 43 days. GU 6 reached the highest Cu extraction both in the
bioleach flask test and the chemical leach test in bottles due to his
higher solubility ratio.

The columns tests suggest that the temperature and particle size
(Figures 10 and 11) are the variables with highest impact on copper
recovery. Soluble fractions and refractory fractions showed growing
extraction with temperature and smaller particle sizes. More
competent rock, porphyries, are less amenable to leaching and show
the lowest recoveries. The intermittent irrigation seems to have no
influence, or is within the experimental error.
Chalcopyrite extraction, related to the refractory fraction, was clearly
enhanced with temperature as can see in Figure 11. Flask tests
reached better results due to their finer particle sizes. As an average,
copper columns extractions at 45 C were 20 extraction units higher
than extractions at 15 C.
The acid consumption showed two different behaviors : the first
increased with time and is related with rock type Andesite volcanic
sediment; the second one, related with the porphyric rock and highest
pyrite content, changed from an acid consumer to an acid generator.

Acknowledgements
My gratitude to Mr. Ricardo Palma, Collahuasi Development VP, for giving
me the opportunity to prepare this paper, and to all who contributed to the
development of the metallurgical testwork program.