Boundary-Layer

Control
 Boundary-Layers
• When a real (viscous) fluid flows past a solid
body, a laminar boundary-layer forms.
• Shortly, the boundary-layer transitions from
laminar to turbulent.
• The velocity fluctuations near the wall must die
out, so there is always a small laminar sub-layer
beneath the turbulent boundary-layer.
• Mixing properties cause the gradient in the sub-
layer to be much stronger than that in the fully-
laminar layer. Thus, transition greatly affects
drag.
 Boundary-Layer Control
• Passive Methods
– Vortex Generators
– Flaps/Slats
– Absorbant Surfaces
– Riblets
– MEMS
• Active Methods
– Mobile Surfaces
– Suction
– Blowing
– Binary Boundary-Layers
– Jet-induced Turbulence
– Planform Control
– Advanced methods
• Magnetodynamics
• Electrodynamics
• Feedback Control Systems
 No Slip Conditions
• According to the kinetic theory gases
– The velocity at the surface is not exactly zero.
– There is a velocity of slip proportional to the velocity gradient.
du
– vs  
dy
• Where ξ has the dimension of length and “may be considered a backward
displacement of the wall with the velocity gradient extending effectively right
up to the displaced wall where the velocity is zero.”
• Millikan Maxwell has shown that for most surfaces, the coefficient of slip is
“very nearly equal to the mean free path of the molecules.”
– At ordinary altitudes this distance is so small that it may be neglected.
– At very high altitudes the slip velocity may have large effects.
– At extreme altitudes the entire concept of the boundary layer and viscosity
become invalid.
 Vortex Generators

• Vortex generators are simply small rectangular

plates that sit above the wing surface. They look
like tiny little wings sitting up perpendicular to
the wing itself.
• As air moves past them, vortices are created off
the tips of the generators. These vortices
interact with the rest of the air moving over the
wing to speed it up and help prevent separation.
Vortex Generators

Many early swept wings

were found to suffer from
separation at transonic
speeds because the
shocks formed on the
wing suddenly slow the
flow. Vortex generators
on both surfaces serve to
dissipate shocks formed
at transonic speeds,
thereby delaying the
effects of separation.
Vortex Generators
• Ineffective control surfaces:
– The separation problem becomes
even more significant since
control surfaces like ailerons are
usually located along the trailing
edge of a wing.
– When the flow separates from the
wing, these control surfaces have
little or no air flowing over them
and they become ineffective.
– Thus, not only will the aircraft lose
lift when the wing stalls, but the
pilot may not be able to control the
orientation of the aircraft.
– In this case, vortex generators are
often placed shortly before the
control surfaces to keep the flow
attached.
Vortex Generators
• Short-takeoff and landing
aircraft:
– These aircraft generally must
operate at low speeds during
takeoff and landing, so the flow
speed over the wings tends to be
low as well.
– Aircraft like the C-17
Globemaster III use vortex
generators to energize the flow
over the wings and control
surfaces at these conditions to
improve performance and
controllability.
Leading Edge Devices
(Nose flaps, Kruger flaps, and Slats)

• “Nose flaps, Kruger flaps, and Slats

are several types of leading edge
devices used to increase the
maximum lift coefficient of the aircraft.
• The system has an opening at the
leading edge of the airfoil allowing high
pressure air under the airfoil to pass.
As a result, the high pressure air
mixes with the air at the top surface
and increases the energy of the
boundary-layer at the surface.
• By increasing the energy of the
boundary-layer the wing can sustain
higher angles of attack and a higher
maximum coefficient of lift.”
Slotted Flaps

Slotted Flaps duct

high-energy air
from the lower
surface to the
upper surface and
delay separation of
the flow over the
flap.
Ultrasonically Absorptive Surfaces
• “Recently performed linear stability analyses suggested that transition
could be delayed in hypersonic boundary layers by using an
ultrasonically absorptive surface that would damp the second mode
(Mack mode).”
• The experiments show that the porous surface was highly effective in
delaying transition provided that the hole size was significantly smaller
than the viscous length scale.
 Motion of the Solid Surface

• Boundary-layers are formed due to the

velocity difference between the solid surface
and the outer flow. The boundary-layer can
therefore be eliminated or minimized by
removing the velocity difference.

U∞
uw=U∞
 Motion of the Solid Surface
• An example of a moving surface is a semi-infinite
circular cylinder rotating about its center. On the
upper side, the separation of the boundary-layer is
completely avoided. Because of the difference in
velocities on the bottom side, a transverse force is
created and separation still occurs. This is called the
Magnus effect.
 Motion of the Solid Surface

• In 1938, A. Favre applied this moving surface

principle to an airfoil. A rotating belt was
incorporated into the top surface of the airfoil.

• Maximum lift coefficients of about 3.5 were achieved

for large angles of attack (α ≈ 55˚).
 Motion of the Solid Surface
Determining The Separation Point
• A new separation parameter must be chosen  w  0
( is no longer valid).
• The MRS criterion is used to determine separation
along a moving surface. Separation happens when:
u
u0 & y
0 occur simultaneously.
 Slit Suction
• L. Prandtl, in 1904, created a narrow slit in one side of
a circular cylinder and applied suction. This slit with
suction effectively acts as a sink.
• Slit suction is based on the change in velocity
distribution, U(x), of the outer flow. The normal
distribution of inviscid flow is superimposed on the
velocity distribution of the sink flow. This causes the
flow to accelerate in front of the slit (creating a favorable
pressure gradient) and prevents separation. Behind the
slit, the sink decelerates the outer flow, but since the
boundary layer is again starting over from zero
thickness, it can withstand some adverse pressure
gradient before eventually separating.
 Tangential Blowing and Suction
• By supplying additional energy to fluid particles in the
boundary-layer that are low in energy, flow can remain
attached to the surface. Two ways of accomplishing
this are blowing high velocity fluid from inside the body
and sucking low energy fluid from the boundary-layer
into the body.

a – blowing Velocity Distribution Directly Behind Slit for

b - sucking Tangential Blowing
Continuous Suction and Blowing

• To be able to use continuous suction or blowing,

the surface must be permeable.
• Continuous blowing reduces wall shear stress and
friction drag. If a different fluid is injected into the
boundary-layer, a binary boundary-layer occurs and
can be used to produce transpiration cooling over the
surface.
• Continuous suction prevents boundary-layer
separation by removing the low energy fluid. Suction
always stabilizes the boundary-layer.
 Continuous Suction and Blowing
Fundamentals
• Surfaces must now be considered to be permeable to
the fluid. The kinematic boundary condition, vw  0 , is no
longer valid. Fluid can now be sucked ( vw  0 ) or blown
(vw  0 ). The “no-slip” condition (u w  0 ) at the non-
moving surface still remains valid.

• v is still assumed to be of the order of magnitude O( 1 Re

)

• The new wall boundary conditions are:

y  0: 
u 0 v  vw ( x  )
where:
vw ( x )
vw  Re
V
 Continuous Suction and Blowing
Fundamentals
• The same boundary-layer equations as before apply
with the addition of:
2
u T  T   u 
2
u v a 2   
x y y C p  y 

• The compatibility condition at the wall is now extended

to:
  2u  dp  w
  2    vw
 y  w dx 
This implies that a pressure increase is a necessary
condition for separation ( w  0 ).
 Continuous Suction and Blowing
Fundamentals

• Integration of the continuity equation yields:

d (U 1 )
lim  v  V    vw ( x )
y  dx

Remark:
This shows that, in principle, the displacement action
of the boundary-layer can be prevented by suction.
 Binary Boundary-Layers

• A binary boundary-layer is formed when a fluid other

than that of the outer flow is being blown.
• Momentum and heat are still exchanged in the
boundary-layer, but now mass is also exchanged
through diffusion. This mass exchange introduces a
concentration boundary-layer.
• These boundary-layers frequently occur in hypersonic
flow.
 Binary Boundary-Layers
Cooling

There are three boundary-layer cooling scenarios, all

of which result in the formation of binary boundary-
layers.
• Transpiration Cooling occurs when a light gas is blown over
a surface. This results in a drastic reduction of heat transfer.
Typically, transpiration cooling is used in heat protection
applications.
• Evaporation Cooling occurs when a layer of liquid evaporates
at the wall.
• Sublimation Cooling occurs if the wall material itself melts or
sublimates.
Jet-Induced Boundary-Layer Vorticity
• A series of jets spatially oriented at 45˚ in a plane
transverse to the mean flow direction produces a series
of counter-rotating vortices.

Experimental setup
Jet-Induced Boundary-Layer Vorticity

Velocity Flow Field in the (y,z) Plane at Two Different Times

Jet-Induced Boundary-Layer Vorticity
• The maximum wall normal velocity components are
always lower than 3% of the external flow velocity.
• The transverse velocity components, w, are weak.
• The rotational nature of the flow in the direction
transverse to the freestream direction creates an
uneven transverse skin friction distribution.
• Jet-induced vorticity could be a means of creating long
channels of turbulent attached flow due to the high
rotational energy of the jet flow.
Effects of Wing Sweep on Natural
Laminar Flow
Laminar Flow Control
 Turbulent Boundary-Layer Control

• Laminar flow control causes a decrease in drag,

but laminar flow is not always desirable.
• Turbulent flow is less prone to separation.
• Turbulent flow control uses higher momentum to
advantage.
 Benefits of Controlled Turbulence

• Maintain flow attachment.

• Eliminate counterproductive large scale
vortices.
 Riblets
• Drag reduction device used to trip boundary- layer into
controlled turbulence.
• Size on the order of tenths of a millimeter.
• Prevents large scale vortex formation.
• Naturally present on sharks.
 Riblets

• Thickening of viscous sublayer.

• Reduction in turbulence intensities and
Reynolds stress at the riblet wall.
• Work as a constraint to the production of
the Reyonlds stresses associated with
the growth and eruption of the eddies in
the the low-speed regions of the
boundary-layers.
Numerical Analysis
 Drag Savings
• Estimates of between 5% to 10-11% reduction in
parasite drag.
• Average parasite drag reduction of 8%.
• Parasite drag makes up 45% of total drag on jet
transports. With half of the skin covered with riblets
producing 8% reduction, total drag reduction would be
approximately 4%, which is significant in commercial
circles.
• Data reported for a 1/11 scale model of the Airbus A320
at cruise Mach number M = 0.7 was a viscous drag
saving of 4.85 %, with about 66 % of the aircraft wetted
area covered by V-riblets.
• Further benefits possibly gained with suction or blowing
along riblet surface.
 Off-design Performance

• Several concerns
– Flow alignment.
– Surface quality.
– Pressure gradients.
– Three-dimensional flows.
– Increased wetted area effects.
 Flow Misalignment

• Beyond 15 degree misalignment with riblet

axis, no significant benefits observed.
• Extremely high angles of attack (>40
degrees) can cause riblet effects to
become detrimental.
• Flow misalignment side-effects can be
alleviated with compound riblets which are
three dimensional and locally optimized to
flow direction.
 Surface Contamination

• Material trapped in crevices or riblets can

disrupt carefully engineered beneficial
riblet surface creating detrimental effects.
• Results in increasing necessary
maintenance.
 Miscellaneous Effects

• Pressure gradient effects have approximately 1-

2% effect, thus these effects with relation to drag
savings are negligible.
• Wetted area increase is a factor with any riblet,
but this is negated by skin friction savings.
• Avoiding the use of L riblets alleviates this
problem.
Large Eddy Break-up Devices (LEBU)

• Similar to riblets in design.

• Designed to disrupt large scale eddy formation.
• Drag reductions similar to riblets (7-8%).
• At higher Reynolds numbers, performance is
diminished.
• Theoretically, coupling with riblets could provide
optimum control of turbulence. This requires
extensive experimentation, as numerical methods
are insufficient to provide effective analysis.
 Compliant Walls

• Flexible Skins absorb momentum which

would otherwise be detrimental.
• Passive walls absorb momentum without
actuation, which is then damped internally.
• Active walls determine optimum
absorption and actuate wall deflections
accordingly, creating optimum boundary
layer interactions.
 Microelectromechanical Systems
(MEMS)
• Smaller scale of similar principle to compliant
walls.
• Sensors detect condition of flow and
manipulate or introduce vortices through
microelectromechanical actuators.
 MEMS
• Through creation of controlled small
scale turbulence, drag benefits can be
achieved which cause lower drag than
laminar flow.
 MEMS

• To gain significant advantage, high percentage of

vehicle would need to be covered with MEMS.
• Result of significant MEMS coverage would be
large cost increase for resulting drag savings.
• Independent processing for each MEMS which
would be necessary to gain significant benefit
would cause significant weight increase.
• Problems can be alleviated with continued
reduction of micromechanics and microprocessors
size, weight, and cost.
 Uses in the Real World
• Riblets were used on the Stars and Stripes in the
1987 America’s Cup helping that boat to win. Riblet
advantage was considered so significant, their use
was subsequently banned.
• 3M has developed a tape which can be applied to
aircraft or watercraft that has riblets, but it is not in
mass production yet as production cost is still
significant, and not yet low enough so the reduction in
operating cost offsets the increased cost for riblet
production and application.
• Riblets and vortex generators used for speed skaters,
skiers and swimmers to reduce pressure drag.
• Exploratory tests of MEMS. Development is still in
very early stages.
 Advanced Methods

(it can be “easily shown” that)

 Magneto-Fluid-dynamic Control

• Lorentz Force: The force induced by motion of

charge (current) through a magnetic field.
 
FL  qv  B
• This principle affords flow control when an
electrically conducting fluid flows through an
electromagnetic field.
 Magneto-Fluid-dynamic Control

• By embedding electrodes and magnets in a flat

surface over which flow passes, the Lorenz force
can be produced.
 Magneto-Fluid-dynamic Control

• It can be shown that for an electrically

conducting, magnetically permeable,
incompressible Newtonian fluid:

u 1 2
 u  u  p   u  St  J  B 
t Re

– Re is the wall Reynolds number based on wall-sheer

velocity and channel half-width
– St  J 0 B02 is the ratio of Lorentz force to fluidic inertia
u
 Magneto-Fluid-dynamic Control

The key to drag reduction is to disturb the

semiequilibrium state between the near-
wall streamwise vorticies and the wall.
This can effectively be done by introducing
Lorentz force perturbations perpendicular
to the vorticies.
Magneto-Fluid-dynamic Control
 Magneto-Fluid-dynamic Control

• System flaws
– Although it is found that parasite drag can be
reduced by as much as 40% with a temporally
oscillating spanwise Lorentz force (to low-
speed flow), the power required to generate
the Lorentz force is an order of magnitude
larger than the power saved due to the drag
reduction.
– Air is generally of a low electrical conductivity,
so the Lorentz force is difficult to induce.
 Electro-Aerodynamic Control

• Coulomb's Law: opposite charges attract with

a force directly proportional to the charge
magnitudes:

q1q2
FC  2
r
• This principle affords flow control when a
layer of ionized gas and a longitudinal electric
field are created in the boundary-layer region.
 Electro-Aerodynamic Control

• Practicality, from a technological standpoint,

prevents local ionization of air along the airfoil.

Suction Pump

Air Ionizer
 Electro-Aerodynamic Control

• The boundary-layer equations (including a

“new” body force to account for electrical
attractions.
u~ v~
~  ~ 0
x y
u~ ~ u~ ~ u~ 1 ~
p ~   2u~  2u~  1 ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~
~  u  v     ~ 2  ~ 2   ~  e  x , y  Ex  x , y 
t ~
x ~
y ~m ~
x  x y   m

v~ ~ v~ ~ v~ 1 ~

p ~   2 v~  2 v~  1 ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~
~  u  v     ~ 2  ~ 2   ~  e  x , y  E y  x , y 
t ~
x ~y ~m ~
y  x y   m
 Electro-Aerodynamic Control

• Define non-dimensional quantities:

~ ~ u~ v~Lr
~ Ur x y
tt x y u v
Lr Lr r Ur U r r
~m ~m ~
p U r Lr
m  m  p Re l 
r r  rU r2 r
~ ~
~ E
  E
r r Er
 Electro-Aerodynamic Control

• In general, it can be said that Re l  1 . For

steady flow, by neglecting terms of order 1 Re l

and  L , one obtains:

2
r
2
r

u v
 0
x y
u u 1 p   2u  1
u v     2      x , y  E x  x, y 
x y  m x  y  m
p  r L2r L L E
   x, y  E y  x, y    2  2r r   r 2 r r
y Lr  r RL  r U r U r r
,
 Electro-Aerodynamic Control

• Assuming the electric field component normal to

the airfoil is small, p y  0 and the x-component
equation, which can be expressed in terms of the
fluid velocity ue as follows:
u u ue   2u  1
u v  ue    2      x, y  E x  x, y 
x y x  y  m

• To account for turbulence, incorporation of eddy

shear stress (  uv   u y ), with   1    yields:
u u ue   u  1
u v  ue          x, y  E x  x, y 
x y x y  y  m
 Electro-Aerodynamic Control

• Defining the non-dimensional stream function 

and accompanying variables as follows:
 u  y 
   e   
    (x ) 

  ue  ( x) f ( x, )

 
u ,v  
y x

one obtains:
  2 f    2 f  2 ue 2   f f
2
f  2 f 
   
2 
f     2  
    x  2
ue x   x  x 

 2  2 ( x)  x,  E x  x, 
ue  m
 Electro-Aerodynamic Control
• The methods and equations described control
the profile of the boundary-layer, specifically as
applied to transition.
• Space-time electric-field modulation is
equivalent to an effective viscous damping effect
which delays the growth of the transition region
instability.
• Because of the perturbations induced by
injection (blowing ionized air), it is advisable to
couple the system with suction at the rear of the
airfoil.
Electro-Aerodynamic Control
Electro-Aerodynamic Control
Blowing/Sucking, a Systems Approach

• A controller designed upon linear theory

has a strong stabilizing effect on two-
dimensional finite-amplitude disturbances.

• Resulting secondary instabilities due to

infinitesimal three-dimensional
disturbances cease to exist.
Blowing/Sucking, a Systems Approach
• Wave destruction method
– Boundary layer instabilities appear as a combination of
sinusoidally growing waves of certain frequencies, phases,
and amplitudes.
– If these wave properties are measured, air can be added and
removed (via blowing and sucking devices described earlier)
from the boundary-layer in an opposing (destructive)
waveform. In this way, flow may be stabilized.
• Instability Suppression Method
– State Space and Galerikin’s method applied to systems
theory allow for the construction of a fluid-actuator-sensor-
controller system that is inherently stable.
– Laminar flow linear instability suppression eliminates the
need to explicitly measure phase and frequency of
instabilities.
Blowing/Sucking, a Systems Approach

• It can laboriously be shown (Dr. Tso, UDI) that:

  2   2  3   2 d 2U ( y )  1  4 1  2  2
  U ( y ) 3  U ( y )   2
t x 2
t y 2
x x x 2
dy 2
x Re x 4
Re x 2 y 2
1  4 q (t )  2 ( x) q(t )  2 f ( y)  3 ( x)
  f ( y)   ( x)  q(t ) U ( y) f ( y)
Re y 4
t x 2
t y 2
x 3

 ( x)  2 f ( y)  ( x)  2U ( y ) 1  4 ( x)
 q(t ) U ( y)  q(t ) f ( y)  q(t ) f ( y)
x y 2 x y 2 Re x 4
2  2 ( x)  2 f ( y ) 1  4 f ( y)
 q(t )  q(t ) ( x)
Re x 2
y 2
Re y 4

It’s justa Tso simple!

Blowing/Sucking, a Systems Approach

• Coupling the previous equation with a state

space model allows for the design of control
systems as shown below:
Blowing/Sucking, a Systems Approach

• The previous feedback loop system allows for

the stabilization of the velocity profile
Blowing/Sucking, a Systems Approach

• Wall sheer can be reduced as follows (with the

system being initialized at t=50).
 Conclusions
• We as engineers must realize that
boundary-layer control methods usually
suck or blow.
• By careful application of the above
described methods, turbulence and
parasite drag can be significantly reduced.
• No questions? Good. We’re done for
today.
 References
• Abbott, I., Von Doenhoff, A., Theory of Wing Sections, Dover Publications, NY, New York, 1959.
• Schlichting, H., Gersten, K., Boundary Layer Theory, 9th Ed., Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg, New
York, 2000.
• http://www2.icfd.co.jp.
• http://www.aerospaceweb.org.
• http://www.ae.utexas.edu/courses/ase463q/design_pages/summer02/activewing/page009.html.
• Rasheed, A., “Passive Hypervelocity Boundary Layer Control Using an Ultrasonically Absorptive Surface,”
January 19, 2001.
• Mendes, R., Dente, J., “Boundary-Layer Control by Electric Fields: A Feasibility Study,” December 29,
2001.
• Berger, T., Kim, J., Lee, C., and Lim, J., “Turbulent Boundary-Layer Control utilizing the Lorentz Force,”
November 19, 1999.
• Di Cicca, G., Onorato, M., Iuso, G., and Spazzini, P., “Turbulent Boundary-Layer Manipulation by
Longitudinal Embedded Vortices,” April 24, 1999.
• Josh, S., Speyer, J., and Kim, J., "A Systems Theory Approach to the Feedback Stabilization of
Infinitesimal and Finite-Amplitude Disturbances in Plane Poiseuille Flow," July 15, 1996.