Professional Documents
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Boiler Systems
Defrosting valve
Using renewable energy
tor
to achieve thermal p ora
Eva
Absorber/regenerator
122˚F
efficiencies of up to Generator
Condenser/absorber
145 percent in
Pipe in pipe
commercial buildings
Burner
C
mixture
Condensing gas-fired hydronic boil-
ers have become increasingly popular The gas-fired-absorption-heat-pump cycle.
in commercial heating applications
during the last 20 years. Several models of condensing share in Europe and recently were introduced to North
boilers now have thermal efficiencies approaching America. They offer new opportunities to significantly im-
100 percent at low firing rates and return-water tempera- prove energy efficiency in schools/universities, hospitals,
tures. However, the 100-percent level remains the funda- office buildings, and manufacturing facilities.
mental efficiency limit for hydronic heating systems in the
commercial-buildings sector. The Absorption Thermodynamic Cycle
Gas-fired absorption heat pumps can be used in The absorption thermodynamic cycle incorporates
commercial heating applications and achieve thermal- several stages of temperature and pressure change that
efficiency levels as high as 145 percent by drawing heat enable ammonia-water working fluid to absorb heat
from renewable energy resources, such as the ground, from a gas-fired burner, ambient air, or geothermal heat
water, or ambient air. Absorption heat pumps use natural sources and transfer it to a hydronic distribution loop.
ammonia-water refrigerant and offer energy and carbon- • The first stage of the absorption cycle includes heat-
dioxide- (CO2-) emissions savings of up to 30 percent or ing the working fluid in a gas-fired-generator component.
more, compared with condensing boilers. The ammonia portion of the working fluid boils into vapor
Absorption heat pumps have gained significant market under high pressure and passes through a partially cooled
James Pettiford is the director of engineering for Fulton Heating Solutions’ new-product development group and has 15 years
of experience in the design and development of advanced commercial and industrial boilers. The commercial-heating-product
manager for Fulton Heating Solutions, Erin Sperry is responsible for modular hydronic heating products and has extensive experi-
ence in applications engineering for activities surrounding the design and installation of commercial heating systems. The chief
engineer for Fulton Thermal Corp., Melissa Wadkinson has 16 years of experience and is involved in the design and application of
commercial and industrial boilers. A product manager at Robur SpA, Fabio Spreafico is responsible for gas-absorption products
(heat pumps and chillers) for North America.
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YA S K A W A A M E R I C A , I N C . - D R I V E S & M O T I O N D I V I S I O N
1 - 8 0 0 - YA S K A W A YA S K A W A . C O M
Circle 169
ABSORPTION-HEAT-PUMP/BOILER SYSTEMS
rectifier to remove residual water. Certain analogies between the can be transferred into the hydronic
• During the second stage of the absorption cycle and the compres- loop for each unit of fuel input, thus
cycle, the ammonia vapor enters the sor-driven Rankine cycle commonly achieving the described overall
condenser, where it is changed back used in electrically driven heat-pump thermal efficiency of 145 percent.
into a liquid state while transferring systems exist. The liquid-solution Figure 1 shows heating-perfor-
heat to the hydronic loop. pump and gas-fired-generator com- mance characteristics of represen-
• During the third stage, the ponents perform the same function tative air-source and geothermal/
ammonia liquid passes through a as the compressor in the Rankine water-source absorption heat
throttling device and undergoes a cycle by producing high-pressure pumps. Air-absorption heat pumps
substantial pressure reduction. ammonia vapor. Also, the absorber exhibit lower efficiencies at low out-
• During the fourth stage, the low- component draws the ammonia va- door temperatures, but still maintain
pressure liquid ammonia enters the por from the evaporator component significantly higher efficiencies than
evaporator component and changes and is analogous to the suction side condensing boilers under nearly all
back to vapor as it absorbs heat from of a refrigerant compressor. Finally, ambient-temperature conditions.
the air or geothermal/water heat the throttling device and evaporator Geothermal absorption heat pumps
source. component in the absorption cycle tend to show relatively constant
• During the fifth stage, the ammo- perform the same pressure-reduc- energy performance vs. outdoor tem-
nia vapor continues to the absorber tion and heat-absorption functions perature.
component, which contains a weaker as in the Rankine cycle. Absorption heat pumps operate
solution (i.e., a lower ammonia con- For each unit of fuel used in the most efficiently when the heat source
centration) of the original ammonia- gas-fired-generator component, 0.85 is at least moderately warm (e.g., geo-
water working fluid, and is absorbed units of heat are transferred directly thermal) or when the heating supply
into the working fluid through an through the condenser component temperature is relatively low (e.g., ra-
exothermic reaction that increases into the hydronic distribution loop. diant-heat or water-loop heat-pump
the temperature of the working fluid Additionally, the ammonia refriger- applications). Low-temperature (140˚F
and releases additional heat into the ant draws up to 0.60 units of low- or less) thermal-distribution systems
hydronic loop. temperature heat from the ambient enable absorption heat pumps to
• During the sixth stage, the liquid- air or geothermal/water source while achieve the greatest energy savings.
solution pump increases the pressure in the evaporator component and Designers should size thermal-distri-
of the ammonia-water working fluid transfers it to the hydronic distribu- bution components (e.g., baseboard/
to meet the high pressure of the gen- tion loop during its absorption into convector units, heating coils for
erator component. The absorption the weak ammonia-water solution ventilation/supply air, etc.) to ensure
cycle then repeats itself, beginning located in the absorber component. that supply- and return-water tem-
with the first stage. Therefore, a total of 1.45 units of heat peratures are as low as possible.
150 150
145
140 145
135
130
Thermal efficiency (percent)
140
Thermal efficiency (percent)
125
120
135
115
77˚F RWT, 95˚F LWT
110 86˚F RWT, 104˚F LWT
68˚F RWT, 86˚F LWT
130 95˚F RWT, 113˚F LWT
105 95˚F RWT, 113˚F LWT
104˚F RWT, 122˚F LWT 104˚F RWT, 122˚F LWT
100 113˚F RWT, 140˚F LWT 113˚F RWT, 131˚F LWT
113˚F RWT, 149˚F LWT
95 125
RWT = Return-water temperature
LWT = Leaving-water temperature RWT = Return-water temperature
90
LWT = Leaving-water temperature
85 120
77 68 59 50 45 36 19 14 5 -4 -13 -20 86 77 68 59 50 41 32
Ambient temperature (degrees Fahrenheit) Cold-water-circuit inlet temperature (degrees Fahrenheit)
FIGURE 1. Typical heating-efficiency data for air-source (left) and geothermal/water-source (right) absorption heat pumps.
Outside wall
brid heat-pump-plus-boiler systems
Hydronic-loop
to cost-effectively maximize seasonal temperature
energy performance. A heat pump is sensor
Gas-absorption
Gas-absorption
heat pump
heat pump
T
the first component to respond to a
hydronic boiler
Main
hydronic boiler
call for heat by a building control sys-
Condensing
Condensing
system
tem. Boiler components operate only pump
1 2 3 4
when a heating load exceeds the ca- Heating zones
pacity of the absorption heat pump.
Figure 2 shows geothermal/
water-source and air-source versions
of the hybrid absorption-heat-pump- Boiler
plus-boiler system. System piping sequencing
control
should be configured to allow cool system
return water to flow to absorption FIGURE 2. Air-source (above) and Remote
monitoring/
heat pumps when possible to maxi- geothermal/water-source system access
mize efficiency. Air-source versions (below) hybrid
of absorption heat pumps should be absorption-heat-
located either outdoors or in a me- pump-plus- 60˚F in the circulating wa-
chanical room with ample exposure boiler systems. ter loop of a water-source
to ambient air. (run-around-type) heat-
Absorption-heat-pump-plus- pump system. The absorp-
boiler systems should include smart tion-heat-pump and boiler
controls to optimize performance components each have a
under part-load and design-load capacity of 1 MMBtuh.
conditions. Improved reliability and Table 1 compares a hybrid
reduced installation costs also can be system with a traditional
achieved through the factory design condensing-boiler system
and manufacturing of fully assembled that has a capacity of
“plug-and-play” absorption-heat- 2 MMBtuh. For evaluation
pump-plus-boiler systems. purposes, the design heat-
Based on typical load ing load of the example com-
profiles and temperature mercial building also is 2 MMBtuh.
bin-hour data for many com- Table 1 incorporates bin-hour
mercial heating applications weather data, calculated heating
in northern climate zones, most achieve loads for each temperature bin, and
operating hours occur under part- essentially the respective heating outputs for the
load conditions. same seasonal ef- absorption and boiler components.
Even if the absorption-heat-pump ficiency as a heat-pump-only system. Th e ta bl e sho w s tha t s iz in g a n
portion of a hybrid system is sized Depending on building-owner pref- absorption heat pump for 50 percent
for only 25 percent of the peak heat- erences, the heating capacity of the of a hybrid system can achieve sub-
ing load, it will provide more than absorption-heat-pump portion of a stantial energy savings on a seasonal
half of the total heating-system out- hybrid system usually will be within basis. Although the table utilizes
put because it will operate through- 25 to 50 percent of total hybrid-system Chicago weather data, many other
out nearly the entire heating season. capacity. geographic locations would show
On the other hand, if the heat-pump Table 1 includes calculations similar results. Just over 90 percent
portion is sized for 50 percent of the of heating loads and system per- of a hybrid system’s total heating
peak load, it can provide more than formance for a hybrid air-source output is provided by the absorption-
90 percent of the total heating-system absorption-heat-pump-plus-boiler heat-pump component.
output. system with a total heating capacity The design choices and calcula-
An absorption-heat-pump-plus- of 2 MMBtuh. The system is intended tions in the table can be adapted to
boiler system with equal proportions to provide supplemental heat to evaluate other sizing options for a hy-
of heat-pump and boiler capacity can maintain a minimum temperature of brid system. For example, the relative
size of the heat-pump component can Hybrid Systems in Geothermal traditional geothermal electrically
be increased or decreased to meet Applications driven heat pumps. The coefficient of
the desired criteria for energy and Geothermal electrically driven performance (COP) of a geothermal
economic performance. Heat-pump- heat-pump systems have gained electrically driven heat pump
efficiency data also could be modified market interest because of their should be multiplied by the average
to reflect geothermal vs. air-source ability to use ground-coupled heat 30-percent efficiency garnered
performance. exchangers to provide efficient heat- by fuel-fired power generation to
The air-source version of the ing and cooling in commercial build- determine a primary-energy-utiliza-
hybrid absorption-heat-pump- ings. Geothermal-heat-pump systems tion factor (i.e., the ratio of heat-pump
plus-boiler system achieves about are effective in reducing electricity thermal output to power-generation
24-percent energy savings in water- consumption and peak electricity fuel input), which often is similar to
loop heat-pump applications by in- demand for summer cooling, but that of condensing boiler systems.
creasing seasonal thermal efficiency incur substantial energy costs Absorption heat pumps can
from 95 percent (for traditional con- for heating in northern climates. achieve thermal efficiencies of 120 to
densing boilers) to 125 percent. An Additionally, the capital costs of geo- almost 150 percent in several types
air-source hybrid system also can thermal borewell fields and ground of geothermal heating applications.
increase the seasonal efficiency of loops have presented a considerable The primary-energy performance
conventional hydronic (baseboard/ barrier to market acceptance. of a geothermal absorption heat
convector) heating from 89 percent When used in geothermal mode, pump can be equivalent to that of an
to 105 percent, depending on distri- absorption heat pumps offer an electrically driven geothermal heat
bution temperature. innovative design alternative to pump with a heating COP of approx-
0/4 58 0.93 1.06 1.75 million 101 1 million 750,000 58 43 55 46 101 109
5/9 66 0.94 1.10 1.58 million 104 1 million 583,000 66 38 60 40 104 111
10/14 125 0.94 1.14 1.42 million 177 1 million 417,000 125 52 110 53 177 188
15/19 243 0.94 1.20 1.25 million 304 1 million 250,000 243 61 202 65 304 323
20/24 354 0.95 1.25 1.08 million 383 1 million 83,000 354 29 283 31 383 403
25/29 511 0.95 1.28 917,000 468 917,000 - 468 - 365 - 468 493
30/34 957 0.95 1.31 750,000 718 750,000 - 718 - 548 - 718 756
35/39 720 0.96 1.34 583,000 420 583000 - 420 - 313 - 420 438
40/44 636 0.96 1.37 417,000 265 417000 - 265 - 193 - 265 276
45/49 577 0.96 1.40 250,000 144 250,000 - 144 - 103 - 144 150
Notes:
1 million Btuh air-source GAHP (base load) plus 1 million Btuh condensing boiler (peak load) vs. 2 million Btuh condensing boiler (for entire heating load)
Peak heating load = 2 million Btuh at -5˚F
Heating load = 0 Btuh at 55˚F
Total heating output = 3,144 MMBtu for both system options
Total fuel input for hybrid system = 2,272 MMBtu (GAHP) plus 242 MMBtu (boiler) = 2,514 MMBtu
Total fuel input for 2 MMBtuh boiler = 3,309 MMBtu
Annual fuel savings = 795 MMBtu or 24 percent
Seasonal efficiency = 3,144/2,514 = 125 percent for hybrid GAHP/boiler system
Seasonal efficiency = 3,144/3,309 = 95 percent for 2 MMBtuh boiler (only) system
TABLE 1. Heating analysis of air-source supplemental heat for a water-loop heat-pump system.
Seasonal Energy
Heating application efficiency savings
Air-source absorption-heat-pump/boiler system with conventional 105 percent 16 percent
hydronic distribution (140˚F/120˚F)
Air-source absorption-heat-pump/boiler system for water-loop 125 percent 24 percent
heat-pump supplemental heating (86˚F/68˚F)
Geothermal absorption-heat-pump/boiler system with conventional 119 percent 25 percent
hydronic distribution (140˚F/120˚F)
Geothermal absorption-heat-pump/boiler system with radiant 143 percent 35 percent
hydronic distribution (95˚F/77˚F)
System with gas-absorption heat pump System with electrical heat pump
Equal-heating-capacity geothermal fields for gas-fired absorption heat pumps and electrically
driven heat pumps.
V
Common Ground ∆T = the delta-T, or designed temperature drop, across
Manheim, Pa. a piping circuit (for heating, design delta-T typically is
20°F; in many radiant-floor-heating and chilled-water-
Variable-speed hydronic circulation has been around cooling systems, however, it usually is about 10°F)
for years. With the advent of packaged controls on pumps, 500 = the specific heat of water, in British thermal units
it is easier than ever to implement. per minute per gallon per hour per Fahrenheit degree
To take a closer look at the concept of variable-speed (8.33 lb per gallon times 60 min per hour times 1 Btu per
pumping, I asked professional engineer and manager of pound per Fahrenheit degree)
application engineering for Taco Inc. Greg Cunniff and
Warwick, R.I.-based plumbing and heating specialist Sample Project
William J. Riley to explain the best applications and key Consider the example of a small restaurant with a heat
benefits of the technology. gain of 75,000 Btuh and an outdoor design temperature
of 95°F. Three zones of fan coils, each with a cooling
Convection-Heat-Transfer Equation load of 25,000 Btuh, are needed. Each zone is designed
The speed of a variable-speed pump is adjusted auto- to a 10°F delta-T and has a flow rate of 5 gpm. With this
matically based on heating- or cooling-load demand. To information, the boiler and chiller supply and return
understand how, let’s take a quick look at the convection- pipes, distribution header, and zone piping can be sized.
heat-transfer equation, which, for water, is: Pipe-sizing guidelines are based on minimum and
maximum flow velocity and maximum head loss. Recom-
gpm = Btuh ÷ (∆T × 500) mended design parameters are velocities of 2 fps to 8 fps
John Vastyan is president of Common Ground (www.seekcg.com), a specialist in marketing communications and business-to-
business public relations serving the hydronic, geothermal, radiant-heat, HVAC, and plumbing-and-mechanical industries.
Circle 172
SEPTEMBER 2010 HPAC ENGINEERING 39
tHe Art OF VArIAbLe-SpeeD pUmpING
System Curve
With flow a function of head
squared, a system curve (parabola) A technician completes the wiring for a light-commercial variable-speed-pump installation.
can be plotted through two points on
a pump curve. The actual operating temperature is 90°F. demand will drop to 25,000 Btu,
point of the system is where the The building will need less heat meaning flow will be higher than
system curve intersects the pump when zone valves begin to close, needed. This soon will translate
curve. The system in our example Riley said. If only two zones are to chiller short-cycling and sub-
requires 15 gpm only when all calling, demand will drop to 50,000 stantially impact overall system
zones are calling and the outdoor Btu; if only one zone is calling, efficiency.
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The Perfect Hydronic Storm:
Falling Delta-T
A not he r conce rn is pr es su r e
curve
differential within a system. As zone 40
valves close, a system curve inter-
System
sects a pump curve at higher and
higher pressure differentials. Gener-
30
ally, the greater the pressure differ-
Head, feet
ential, the greater the flow velocity,
which quickly can lead to noise.
One method of dealing with noise 20
involves installation of a pressure-
differential bypass valve, which pre-
vents flow when all zones are call-
10
ing. As zone valves close, increasing 1,750
pressure differential, a bypass valve
opens, allowing excess pressure and 584 1,168
flow to pass through on their way to 0
the suction (inlet) side of a pump. 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Another solution for noise involves Flow, gallons per minute
use of a variable-speed pump. FIGURE 1. Variable-speed-pump performance curves.
With only two zones calling,
delta-T drops to about 7°F (a 25- deliver the required heat. By main- vary flow as needed to ensure opti-
percent difference), and with only taining a consistent delta-T, we can mal performance and heat transfer.
one zone calling, it drops to about
3°F, a 70-percent decrease.
The dilemma of falling delta-T
can be solved using a fixed-delta- Yes, there are smaller boilers,
T, variable-speed pump, Riley said.
With a fixed delta-T, flow varies au- but there is no smaller
tomatically. So, rather than search-
ing for the point at which a system carbon footprint.
curve intersects a pump curve, we
know the pump curve will self-adjust A amazing 98% efficiency at full fire
An
(Figure 1). to DOE test requirements!
The objective is to satisfy the heat
gain of a structure as efficiently as
Th new Centauri Plus 500 to 1000 MBH
The
possible. The way to do that is to
condensing boilers feature:
co
allow a pump to adjust its speed to
• Up to 7-to-1 turndown
PHOTO COURTESy OF TACO INC.
Centauri® Plus
Gas-fired Condensing Fire Tube Boiler
Modbus and BACnet • Higher input, high efficiency models available
up to 2,000,000 BTU
Commercial Boiler Systems and Controls
An in-line pump with integral variable- www.riversidehydronics.com
frequency drive.
Circle 175
SEPTEMBER 2010 HPAC EnginEEring 41