1|Page

ASSIGNMENT #1: ECOSYSTEM

TABLE OF CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION 3

RESEARCH 3

ECOSYSTEM ELEMENTS AND CHARACTERISTICS

2|Page

ENERGY FLOW 3-5

STRUCTURE OF ECOSYSTEMS 5

DYNAMIC ECOSYSTEMS 5-6

BIOGEOCHEMICAL CYCLES 6-7

TYPES OF APPROACHES 7-8

IMPLICATIONS 8-9

CONCLUSION 9

APPENDIX/GLOSSARY 10

REFERENCE 11

Introduction

There are connections everywhere, we are connected to each other in many ways and just like that we are
connected to the place we live. This relationship does not occur only between humans it exists between animals, plants
and their environment. The planet earth is able to support hundreds of connections on its vast surface. The connections
between the physical environment and the communities of different organisms are called ecosystems. This paper will
discuss the different aspects of the ecosystems and the best ways to go about understanding the environment and its
challenges. Starting with the different characteristics of ecosystems and its organisation will be examined followed by the
different biogeochemical cycles and finally the different types of research approaches when it comes to the ecosystem.
This essay will also look into how this information and strategies will change the way we look at the environment. By
3|Page

understanding the relationships between the different component of the ecosystem, it will become obvious how each
individual element comes together to create a unique system.

Research

This paper bases its ideas upon those that already exist and expand on it through secondary research already
present in the text, Environmental Change and Challenge by Philip Dearden and Bruce Mitchell. The information also
comes from the lecture power points the various Professors and Doctors went through. Their power point clarifies and
expands on the various chapters in the book. They also explain various examples they have experienced, making the
information more engaging and useable, in this essay. The different online sources also cleared some doubts the book
brought up. The power points were brief and to the point and helped a great deal when it came to organising and
discussing the various topics. The book provided a good background when it came to writing this essay. It was in depth
and thorough in every aspect of ecosystems and its components. The power points got to the point so it was useful when it
came to freshening up on a certain topic during the writing process. The online sources only came into use for specific
examples and extra information the book didn’t go over. With the balance of lectures, text information, and online sources
the essay came together in an informative way.

Ecosystem Elements and Characteristics:

Energy Flow
4|Page

Life must follow certain characteristics: use energy to maintain internal order, increase in size and complexity over time,
reproduce, react to their environment, regulate and maintain a constant internal environment, and fit the biotic and abiotic
requirements of a specific habitat (Dearden & Mitchell,
2009, p.55). What is the basis for all life?
Life begins with the sun
and the energy it provides the planet. The world is filled
with energy and is always moving; therefore, it doesn’t
stay in just one form. Energy is available in radiant
energy, chemical, heat, mechanical, electrical, sound,
and etc. Energy is unique, it does so much without
occupying space and has no mass. Energy follows the
Figure 1 Energy flow
laws of thermodynamics. The first law tells us that
energy cannot be created or destroyed only transformed thus called the law of conservation of energy (Dearden &
Mitchell, 2009, p. 54). The second law of thermodynamics is especially important to organisms, the law of entropy or
energy degradation (Dearden & Mitchell, 2009, p. 54). Energy is lost as it changes forms because it is dispersed as waste
energy into the surrounding usually as heat. Energy must be added regularly to maintain balance in a system. There are
two types of energies low-quality and high-quality energy. It is known that the sun provides the earth with most of its
energy even though its only 1/50 of the sun’s total
output (Dearden & Mitchell, 2009, p. 56). Only
0.023% will be used in photosynthesis which in turn
will create biomass (Dearden & Mitchell, 2009,
p.57). This process is only done by phototrophs
which fall under autotrophs and along with
chemotrophs. (Dearden & Mitchell, 2009, p.57).
Heterotrophs or consumers gain their energy by
Figure 2 Food Chain
eating other organisms (Dearden & Mitchell, 2009,
p.57). This pathway of organisms started by autotrophs is known as a food chain. After autotrophs comes herbivores
(primary consumers) and they are feed on by carnivores (secondary consumers), these different levels are called trophic
levels. Omnivores feed on any trophic level jumping from primary to a secondary even to tertiary consumer depending on
what they eat. There are smaller organisms which feed on detritus (dead plant material) called saprotrophs (Dearden &
Mitchell, 2009, p.61). This special food chain involving Detritivores is vital in removing dead organisms and releasing
essential nutrients (Dearden & Mitchell, 2009, p.61). All these different species are connected in their own unique food
chain/web. Small food chains have less food options than larger ones so you see the effects when one species suffers.
These populations can be controlled by prey (bottom-down control) or by predator populations (top-down control)
(Dearden & Mitchell, 2009, p.64). We will see how the amount of energy changes as animals proceed thorough their food
webs. The best way to describe these amounts is through biotic pyramids, giving us the specific numbers at different
5|Page

trophic levels. The pyramid shape depicts that as we move up, energy is lost as heat, not all the biomass is used as food,
food consumed is not all ingested, or what is ingested isn’t always digested (G. Lewis. Energy flows and ecosystems, Sept
22, 2009). This brings us to the productivity of these systems. Some consumers are more productive than others;
ectotherms (cold blooded) are more productive than endotherms (warm blooded) (G. Lewis. Energy flows and
ecosystems, Sept 22, 2009). These pyramids can provide details in populations (amount of certain trophic level), energy
(energy produced at each trophic level), and biomass (standing crop) (G. Lewis. Energy flows and ecosystems, Sept 22,
2009). Because of this there can be pyramids that are inverted, a producer supporting primary and secondary consumers.
The biomass being larger than the population, or greater energy output with low biomass (G. Lewis. Energy flows and
ecosystems, Sept 22, 2009). We see the relationships between different trophic levels and energy distribution, now we can
see the different parts of an ecosystem.

Structure of Ecosystems

There are many parts to an ecosystem just like everything else in this world. An ecosystem is a collection of
different communities interacting with the environment (G. Lewis. Energy flows and ecosystems, Sept 22, 2009). These
communities are made of populations of different individual organisms. Ecosystems have two great components that work
hand in hand, biotic and abiotic components (Dearden & Mitchell, 2009, p.70). Abiotic components include light,
temperature, wind, water, and soil characteristics such as pH, soil type, and nutrient status (Dearden & Mitchell, 2009,
p.70). The biotic components include the organisms. This will discuss habitat, niche, competitive exclusion principle,
specialist species, and generalist species. Different combinations of the factors create different living environments called
biomes. Different species have different ranges of tolerance depending on the particular limiting factor of that area. Each
species needs a combination of physical, chemical, and biological conditions for its growth known as a niche and where it
lives is its habitat (Dearden & Mitchell, 2009, p. 73). The same niche cannot be occupied by two different species in the
same area; this is called the competitive exclusion principle. In these situations certain species may fall short in getting
what they want over other species in the same niche. This is where completion comes into play. Two types of
competitions exist interspecific and intraspecific. Competition can be reduced through resource partitioning, splitting up
the times or how different species hunt for food. One of the major interactions in these environments is the basic predator
versus prey. Predators must think about the optimal foraging theory before going after prey. There are different forms of
prey vs. predator relationships parasitism, mutualism, and commensalism. Species are very important to each other and
their environments, especially keystone species. They can cause change to an entire food chain if they are harmed or
displaced from their habitat.

Dynamic Ecosystems

Ecosystems are always changing depending on several factors. We will begin by discussing how species change
over time and adapt to new surroundings. Heritability, selection, and mutations and drift are the ways organisms evolve
(S. Murphy, Dynamic Ecosystems, Sept 24, 2009) Evolution and speciation occur over thousands of years but due to
human interferences it has shorted to decades (Dearden & Mitchell, 2009, p. 118). With this species begin to diversify and
6|Page

populations of each species begin to grow and fluctuate. Extinction can occur of a particular species. Alien species can
increase by decimating a certain species. These are some other ways ecosystems change. Ecosystems tend to be in a state
of dynamic equilibrium since there are always internal adjustments to external effects (Dearden & Mitchell, 2009, p. 118).
Primary succession is when primary colonizers introduce themselves to unvegetated surfaces caused by moving glaciers
or landslides (Dearden & Mitchell, 2009, p. 84). These colonizers would often be lichen who slowly makes way for other
successional stages leading to a climax community (Dearden & Mitchell, 2009, p. 85). Previously vegetated areas like
abandoned fields and land after fires can also follow similar seral stages through a process called secondary succession
(Dearden & Mitchell, 2009, p. 90).

Biogeochemical Cycles
 7|Page

We understand how energy flows in a cycle and the how the food chain is a part of that but there is also another
portion that is just as important the biogeochemical cycles. To understand this we must understand what matter is, it is the
physical part of this world. It has a definite amount, and does take up space opposite of energy in this case but it does
follow the law of conservation of matter. Organic matter is composed 97% of 6 nutrients: carbon, oxygen, hydrogen,

Figure 3 Phosphorous Cycle Figure 4 Carbon Cycle

phosphorous, and sulphur (Dearden & Mitchell, 2009, p.121). These are the nutrients that follow the biogeochemical
cycle. The cycles are further classified into gaseous (nitrogen and carbon) and sedimentary cycles (phosphorus, sulphur,
calcium,
magnesium, and
potassium.

The phosphorus
cycle is slow since
most is found in
bedrock and
organisms. It can
take a while for it to
get into the systems
but it doesn’t take
long to travel
between abiotic and
biotic factors
Figure 5 Hydrological cycle
making it a limiting
factor (Dearden &
Mitchell, 2009, p. 123). The sulphur cycle is different from phosphorus for two main reasons. One it exists in the
atmosphere so gets around, and second it is dependent on microbial activities (Dearden & Mitchell, 2009, p. 127).
8|Page

Nitrogen is an essential part of chlorophyll, proteins and amino acids (Dearden & Mitchell, 2009, p. 129). It is mostly
found in the atmosphere and makes its way to organisms
mostly as nitrates through the soil. The atmospheric
supply is connected to the organisms is through nitrogen
fixation and denitrification (Dearden & Mitchell, 2009,
p.129). Carbon only takes up 0.03% of the atmosphere
and used for fats, proteins, and carbohydrates (Dearden &
Mitchell, 2009, p.132). It is absorbed by plants and passes
along the food chain than releases back into the
atmosphere. Too much gaseous elements can affect the
environment. The hydrological cycle is basically the water
cycle and how it moves bodies of water around. When
precipitation occurs 77% falls back into the ocean and the Figure 6 Nitrogen Cycle

rest joins ice caps, lakes, rivers, groundwater, and moves

back between theses sources (Dearden & Mitchell, 2009, p. 135). Since there are a lot of acidic content in the atmosphere
(sulfuric acid and nitric acid) it causes acid rain. Water found in the water table is purified; as it travels through the layer
of soil it holds back certain impurities. All these different cycles working together make the ecosystem flow smoothly,
before any human interference.

Types of Approaches

“Systems have environmental, economic, and social components” (Dearden & Mitchell, 2009, p.7). Since we
focus on environmental part we tend to focus on its components: biology, zoology, chemistry, geology, and geography
(Dearden & Mitchell, 2009, p.7). Some ways of applying this information is through: disciplinary, multidisciplinary,
cross-disciplinary, interdisciplinary, transdisciplinary. Starting with disciplinary, it is made of the concepts, theories,
assumptions, and methods with a specific discipline (Dearden & Mitchell, 2009, p.7). The disciplinary approach confines
itself to one specialization and when it comes to the environment there are several aspects to consider (Dearden &
Mitchell, 2009, p.7). Multidisciplinary is a different from disciplinary in the sense if draws on the opinions of different
specialist but allowing them to work independently or with colleagues of the same specialization (Dearden & Mitchell,
2009, p.7). When each specialization finishes they submit the report separately to an individual or group who synthesizes
a mixed conclusion drawing on all disciplines (Dearden & Mitchell, 2009, p.7). In the cross-disciplinary approach he/she
borrows concepts, theories, methods, and empirical findings to better his/her disciplinary approach (Dearden & Mitchell,
2009, p.7). This way can be misleading (use ideas out of context) since they make no contact with different
specializations only borrow their research (Dearden & Mitchell, 2009, p.7). When it comes to the certain topics some
approaches are better than others. When it comes to the environment interdisciplinary and transdisciplinary prevail. To
start off interdisciplinary approach means people from different specializations actually interact from the beginning of the
project (Dearden & Mitchell, 2009, p.7). The objective is similar to cross-disciplinary, they both gather ideas from various
9|Page

specializations (Dearden & Mitchell, 2009, p.7). This approach requires a lot of patience since people from different
specializations must meet to discuss ideas from the start regularly and must take the time to learn the lingo of other
disciplines (Dearden & Mitchell, 2009, p.7). Researchers must have respect, trust, and mutual understanding since one
discipline may step on the ideas of another. At the same time have to believe in their ideas and willing to cope since
disciplines are challenged. This takes a lot of work to follow through but once they clear the difficulties, the project pays
off. The transdisciplinary approach comes into play when the issue in question deals with and requires the different
specializations (Dearden & Mitchell, 2009, p.7). Both these disciplines are important when it comes to the environment,
because like I stated before the environment involves many different specializations to work together rather than one. It
needs to be melting pot of ideas to overcome many of the environmental issues we have today. The environmental issues
and challenges affect the people, the economy, different specializations in the environmental aspect itself, the government,
and etc. When it is a global issue like is now it needs the patience and dedication of the world. It attracts the attention of
the transdisciplinary approach and the methods of the interdisciplinary approach.

Implications

When making sense of the research behind the environment and different ecosystems we can’t help but think
maybe it’s not supposed to be like this. We have to wonder how big of an impact have we had on these different systems
and cycles. In this day and age I don’t think studying the environment means the same as it did back when greenhouse
gases were a myth. Now we don’t study what an environment is, we know that already, rather how we screwed it up
finding new ways to fix it. We tend to focus on the different human influences and how these influences can be undone to
get back to the way it was. These influences are not only environmental; it also includes economical and social problems.
These environmental concerns can start from any corner. For example increasing populations around the world can cause
governments to spend more money on transportation needs leading to increase in car sales resulting in high gas
consumption releasing high amounts of toxins into the air. This is just one way it approaches an environmental concern.
Some other environmental issues can be extinction of certain animals from excessive hunting. The list keeps going but a
systematic and scientific approach can give us answers to these problems. We use interdisciplinary and transdisciplinary
approaches to studying the environment we can also use these approaches to correct the same issues. So far as a way to
manage the environmental issues indicators have been put in place to see how see things change for the better or worse.
We are moving toward new technologies for sustainable development which emerged in the 1980s (Dearden & Mitchell,
2009, p.18). Such ideas are the way to go since they use the research and evidence from what is going on in the world to
change it. “As a process, sustainable development emphasizes a system of governance and management characterized by
openness, transparency decentralization, and accessibility” (Dearden & Mitchell, 2009, p.18). This process touches on the
idea of using science to find solutions. It understands that one change will result in other changes and it is fit for the
twenty-first century (Dearden & Mitchell, 2009, p.18). One way this approach was put into action was with the
Millennium Ecosystem Assessment to discuss how changing ecosystems affected human well-being (Dearden & Mitchell,
2009, p.18). I believe a good way to begin approaching is by help developing countries that way it will reduce their
10 | P a g e

populations. Also making sure developed countries do not consume more than they need since at this rate we will run out
of resources for the future. I believe with all these great minds working together with a systematic approach the answer
will come soon.

Conclusion

Relationships are the key to any system and the basis to the relationship called the natural environment is
ecosystems. We understand the ecosystem is made of many components and is carefully structured and for that reason one
mistake can cause catastrophic damage. Due to the adaptive ability of the ecosystem it might be able to survive but it too
has a limit. One component of the ecosystem is just as important as the others. The ecosystem must be able to move
energy around, move nutrients around (biogeochemical cycles), move water around (hydrological cycle), adapt and evolve
accordingly, and keep populations constant. By research and examples we see how different environmental issues affect
everyday life and how we try to correct it. The world is always changing and how to change (help) the environment is
changing along with it. At this rate it looks like managing the environmental issues is going to be a fulltime job. It is
important to learn about the environment since it is the first step to fixing it.

Appendix/ Glossary:
11 | P a g e

Autotrophs- Organisms that produce their own food with chemical processes. e.g. photosynthesis.

Chemotrophs- A producer organism that converts inorganic chemical compounds into energy.

Commensalism- An interaction between two species that benefits one species and neither harms or benefits the other.

Denitrification- The conversion of nitrate to molecular nitrogen by bacteria in the nitrogen cycle.

Detritivores- Organisms that feed on dead matter and are involved in decomposition.

High quality energy- Energy that is easy to gather/use but disperses quickly.

Intraspecific competition- Competition between members of the same species for limited resources such as food, water,
or space.

Interspecific completion- Competition between members of the same species for limited resources such as food, water,
or space.

Limiting factor- A chemical or physical factor that determines whether an organism can survive in a given ecosystem. In
most ecosystems, rainfall is the limiting factor.

Low-quality energy- Energy that is diffuse, dispersed at low temperatures, and difficult to gather; most of the energy
available to us.

Mutualism- Relationship between two organisms having to do with food supplies, protection, or transport that is
beneficial to both.

Nitrogen Fixation- Conversion of gaseous (atmospheric) nitrogen (N₂) into (NH₃) by bacteria, such as those that grow on
the root nodules of legumes.

Parasitism- Relationship in which one species lives in or on another that acts as its host.

Phototrophs- Organisms that produce complex chemicals through photosynthesis.

Producers- Autotrophs capable of synthesizing organic material, thus forming the basis of the food web.

Productivity- Is measured in ecosystems by the rate at which energy is transformed into biomass, or living matter, and is
usually expressed in terms of kilocalories per square meter per year.
12 | P a g e

REFERENCES

(2008). “Carbon Cycle”. TutorVista. October 6, 2009.

http://www.tutorvista.com/content/biology/biology-iv/ecosystem/carbon-cycle.php

Dearden, P. & Mitchell, B. (2009). Environmental change and challenge: A Canadian perceptive. Canada.
Oxford University Press.

(2008). “ Energy Flow”. TutorVista. October 6, 2009.

http://www.tutorvista.com/content/biology/biology-iv/ecosystem/energy-flow.php

(2008). “ Food Chains”. TutorVista. October 6, 2009.

http://www.tutorvista.com/content/science/science-ii/environment/food-chain.php

Lewis, G. (2009). Energy flows and ecosystems. ENVS 195. September 22, 2009

Murphy, S. (2009). Dynamic ecosystems. ENVS 195. September 24, 2009.

Pidwirny, M. (2006). "The Nitrogen Cycle". Fundamentals of Physical Geography, 2nd Edition. October 6,
2009. http://www.physicalgeography.net/fundamentals/9s.html

Price, J. (2009). Ecosystems and Matter Cycling. ENVS 195. September 29, 2009

Raven, Peter, Linda Berg. Environment third edition. Harcourt.2001.

http://vincejtremante.tripod.com/cycles/phosphours.htm

(2008). “The Concept of the Ecosystem”. Regents of the University of Michigan