Types of Research

Exploratory Research
Provide information to use in analysing a situation,
but uncovering conclusive evidence to determine a course
of action is not the purpose
Conducted with the expectation that subsequent research
will be required to provide conclusive evidence
Types of Research
Descriptive Research
Seeks to determine answers to who, when, what,
where, why and how questions
Helps segment and target markets
Accuracy is of paramount importance, but errors cant
be completely eliminated.
Unlike exploratory research, it is based on some
previous understanding of the problem
Types of Research
Causal Research
Goal is to identify cause and effect relationships
among variables
An appropriate causal order of events or temporal
sequence must be there in a causal relationship. i.e
cause must precede the effect.
Uncertainty of Type of Research
Exploratory Descriptive Causal Research
Research Research (Clearly Defined
(Ambiguous (Aware of Partially Problem)
Problem) Defined Problem)
Absenteeism is Increasing What kind of people Which of two training
and we don’t know why? favour trade programs is more
protectionism? effective?
Would people be Did last year’s product Can I predict the value of
interested in our new recall have an impact on energy stocks if I know
product idea? our company’s stock the current dividends and
price? growth rates of
dividends?
What task conditions Has the average merger Will buyers purchase
influence the leadership rate for savings and loans more of our new product
process in our increased in the past in a new package?
organizations? decade?
PROBLEM DEFINITION
A problem well defined is a problem half
solved
IMPORTANCE OF PROBLEM
DEFINITION
Coca –Cola Case in 1980s
A problem definition indicates a specific managerial
decision area to be clarified or problem to be solved. It
specifies research questions to be answered and the
objectives of research.
What is a Research Problem
1. There must be an individual or group which has
some difficulty or the problem
2. There must be some objective(s) to be attained. If
one wants nothing, one cannot have a problem
3. There must be alternative means for obtaining the
objective.
4. There must remain some doubt in the mind of the
researcher with regard to the selection of alternatives.
5. There must be some environment to which the
difficulty pertains.
Selecting the Problem
i. Subject which is overdone
ii. Controversial Subjects
iii. Too narrow or too vague problems
iv. The subject should be familiar and feasible
v. Qualifications and training of researcher
vi. Costs involved
vii. Time Factor
viii. A preliminary study must be done.
The Process of Problem Definition
1. State the problem in general
2. Understand the nature of the problem
3. Survey the available literature
4. Develop the ideas through discussions
5. Rephrase the research problem
Technical terms, Basic assumptions, Time period,
Sources of data, Scope of investigation should be
considered.
Problem Defn & Hypothesis
Similarities & Differences
Both state relationships between variables
Problem Statement are often phrased as questions
Hypothesis are declarative
Hypothesis are more specific than former
Both have considerable value in planning and design
research.
Both help researchers to find crucial data reqd in
analysis stage.
Research Proposal

A written statement of the research design that includes a

statement explaining the purpose of the study and a
detailed, systematic outline of a particular research
methodology.
Research Design
A master plan specifying the methods and procedures
for collecting and analysing the needed information in
a manner that aims to combine relevance to the
research purpose with economy in procedure.
Conceptual structure or blueprint
Overall research design
Sampling design
Observational Design
Statistical Design
Operational Design
Features of a Good Design
Minimises bias
+
Maximises reliability of data
+
Smallest experimental error
GOOD
+
DESIGN
Yields maximal information
+
Considers all aspects
 CONCEPTS
1. Dependent & Independent Variables
2. Extraneous Variable
3. Control
4. Confounded Relationship
5. Research Hypothesis
6. Experimental and Non-experimental Hypothesis testing
Research
7. Experimental & Control Groups
8. Treatments
9. Experiment
10. Experimental Unit
 Relationship among Research Design
Descriptive Research

Exploratory
Research

Causal Research
Research Design : Exploratory Research
Literature Search
Experience Survey
Secondary Data Analysis
Case Study Method – Insight Stimulating Examples.
Pilot Studies
- Focus Group
- Projective Techniques
- Depth Interviews
 Observational Methods
Exploratory Research : Literature Survey
Quickest and cheapest techniques
Conceptual literature, Trade journals, Published statistics

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Exploratory Research : Experience Survey
In this technique individuals who are knowledgeable
about a particular research problem are surveyed.
Informal conversations
Consists of interviews with few people who have been
carefully selected
Purpose is to help formulate the problem and clarify
concepts rather than develop conclusive evidence.

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Exploratory Research : Secondary Data Analysis
Preliminary review of data collectd for another purpose to
clarify issues in the early stages of a research effort.
Done in detail as a separate chapter

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Exploratory Research : Case Study Method
Intensively investigates one or a few situations similar
to the researcher’s problem situation.
Benchmarking
Schwinn Cycles Case
Cases reflect abrupt changes, extremes of behaviour,
sequences of events and other striking features are
most useful.

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 Exploratory Research : Pilot Study
Small Scale research project that uses sampling but does not
apply rigorous standards
Generates Primary data
Collects data from employees, consumers, voters, or other
subjects of ultimate concern rather than from few
knowledgeable experts and case studies.
Includes : Focus Groups, Projective Techniques, depth
Interviews

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 Focus Groups
An unstructured, free flowing group discussions with a small group of people
who sit and talk about some topic of interest to the focus group sponsorer.
A ‘Moderator’ directs the discussion.
Number of Participants and Groups
Purposes:
To generate hypothesis that can be further tested quantitatively
To generate information helpful in structuring consumer questionnaires
To provide background information on a product category
To obtain customer impressions on new product concepts or ad copy.

Relatively brief, easy to execute, quickly analysed and inexpensive

Rarely representative, Cant take place of quantitative studies.
Often used for concept screening and refinement
 Focus Groups : Advantages 10 S
Synergy
Serendipity
Snowballing
Shortcomings: Without a sensitive
Stimulation and effective moderator , a single
self-appointed participant may
Security dominate the session
Spontaneity
Specialization
Scrutiny
Structure
Speed Back
Pilot Studies : Projective Techniques

An indirect means of questioning that enables a

respondent to “project” beliefs and feelings onto a
third party, an inanimate object, or a task situation.
“ A man is least himself when he talks in his own person;
when he is given a mask he will tell the truth.” - Oscar
Wilde
Projective Techniques : Common Methods
Word Association
Sentence Completion
Story Telling
 Projective Techniques : Word Association
The subject is presented with a list of words, one at a time,
and asked to respond with the first word that comes to mind.
Test words are interspersed between neutral words to
conceal purpose of study.
Eg: margarine, lakes, blue jeans, government, traffic,
relations, children, sunset, smokestacks, peanut butter, city.
Common responses are classified and grouped, and tend to
reveal patterns of underlying motivations.
Judged by frquency of a particular word as a response,
amount of time elapsed before a response is given, number
of respondents who do not respond at all to a test word
within a time limit.
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Projective Techniques : Sentence Completion
Respondents are required to complete a number of partial
sentences with the first word or phrase that comes to
mind.
Eg : People who care about ecology________
A person who does not use our lakes for recreation is
_________
When I think of living in a city,__________

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 Projective Techniques : Story Telling
Relies on pictorial material, like cartoons, photographs,
drawings etc..
Descendants of the psychologists’ Thematic Apperception
Test (TAT)
Responses are used to assess attitudes that comprise the
consumer behaviour phenomenon.

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 Pilot Studies : Depth Interviews
A relatively unstructured, extensive interview used in the primary
stages of the research process
Interested in the “why” of organisational or consumer behaviour.
Interviewer’s role : Highly skilled individual who can encourage
respondents to talk freely without influencing the direction of the
conversation
Subject matter is generally undisguised as opposed to Projective
Techniques.
It is an expensive technique, results depend on interviewers skill,
and thirdly difficulty in getting both the surface reactions and the
subconscious motivations of the respondent.
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 Observational Techniques

1. Scuff marks on museum floor tiles have long been used

as a means of measuring the popularity of display
2. Age and condition of cars in a parking lot used to gauge
the affluence of the group patronizing the outlet
3. No. of finger prints on a page used to assess readership
of various ads in a magazine.
 Observational Techniques : Advantages
More useful in sorting facts from fiction with respect to
“desirable “ behaviours
Helps to observe consumer behaviour which the consumer
himself is unaware of
Helps to learn about tastes and preferences of different
ethnic groups with different languages
In studying children.
Heart of a popular research “ the mystery shopper”
Pros and Cons of Exploratory Research
Exploratory Research cannot take place of quantitative
conclusive research
They have limitations
They provide qualitative information and interpretation of
the findings is typically judgemental.
Focus Group interviews may be ambiguous
Exploratory techniques utilize small sample sizes which
havnt been selected on probability basis which may not be
representative
Simply means that it cannot deliver what it doesn’t
promise.
 Research Design : Descriptive Research
Focus attention on:
i. Formulating the objective of the study (What and why)
ii. Designing the methods of data collection (how)
iii. Selecting the sample (who, how many)
iv. Collecting the data(where)
v. Processing and analysing the data (why, when)
vi. Reporting the findings.
Types of Descriptive Research

Descriptive Studies

Longitudina Cross
l Sectional
 Longitudinal Descriptive Research / Time
Series Analysis

It is a co-relational research study that involves repeated

observations of the same items over long periods of time
Also known as Panel Research –

True Panel Omnibus Panel

True Panel
True Panels rely on repeated measurements of the
same variables over long periods of time.

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Omnibus Sample
Information about different variables collected from
the members of sample varies over time.
Advantage : Easy access to sample.
Significance of Longitudinal Research
1. Assessing Brand Loyalty and Brand Switching
2. Amount of information collected
3. Accuracy of Data
4. Reduced interviewer Bias
Issues in Longitudinal Research
Refusals
Attrition
Under-representation

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 Cross-Sectional Research / Sample Survey
Most Important Type of Design
It provides a snapshot of the variables of interest at a
single point in time
The sample is typically selected to be representative of
some known universe
Emphasis on selecting sample members with a probability
sampling plan
Emphasis on relative frequency of occurrence of the joint
phenomenon
Cohort Research
A cohort is a group of individuals who experience the
same event within the same time interval, and it serves
as the basic unit of comparative analysis.
Used when there are a series of properly spaced
surveys.
Eg. Birth cohorts : groups of people born within the
same time interval.
Research Exploratory Descriptive
Design Research Research
Overall Design Flexible Rigid Design

(i) Sampling Design Non-probabilistic Probability Sampling

design

(ii) Statistical Design Not Preplanned Pre-planned

(iii) Observational Design Unstructured Instruments Structured Instruments

(iv) Operational Design No fixed decisions Advanced Decisions

Research Design : Causal Research
Also called as Hypothesis –Testing Research
Uses Experimental Designs
Experiment : A research method in which conditions
are controlled so that one or more variables can be
manipulated in order to test a hypothesis
Causal Research
3 Principles
1. Principle of Replication
2. Principle of Randomization
3. Principle of Local Control
Important Experimental Designs
Informal Designs / True Experimental Designs
1. Before –and-after with control design
2. After only with control design
3. Four Group Solomon Design
4. Time Series Experiment

Formal Designs / Quasi –Experimental Designs

5. Completely Randomized design (C.R. Design)
6. Randomized Block Design (R.B.Design)
7. Latin Square Design (L.S. Design)
8. Factorial Designs
 Before -and-after with Control Design

EG : (R) O1 X O2
CG : (R) O3 O4
Effect of Experimental Treatment = (E+U+I) - U
=(O2 -O1 ) – (O4 - O3 )

Where EG – Experimental Group

CG – Control Group
(R) – Randomization Procedure
Oi - measurement of variables at time i
i = 1,2,3….
U – Uncontrollable sources of Variation
I – Interactive effect of testing
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After only with control design

EG : (R) X O1
CG : (R) O2

Effect of Experimental Treatment = (O2 -O1 )

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Four Group Solomon Design

EG 1 : (R) O1 X O2 = E + U + I
CG 1 : (R) O3 O4 = U
EG 2 : (R) X O5 = E+U
CG 2 : (R) O6 = U
Effect = (E+U)-(U) = E
= [O5 - ½(O1 + O3 )] – [O6 - ½(O1 + O3 )]

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Time Series Experiment
It is a type ofquasi experimental design – unable to
schedule the experimental stimuli -unable to
randomly assign test units to groups
Experiments are conducted over long periods of time
on the same test units.
O 1 O 2 O3 O 4 X O 5 O 6 O 7 O 8
Unique Adv : Distinguish temporary from permanent
changes.

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 Completely Randomized design (C.R. Design)

It uses a random process to assign experimental units to

treatments in order to investigate the effects of a single
independent variable on the dependent variable.
Involves only Principle of Replication and Randomization
Simplest possible design, Analysis is also simpler
One-way anaysis of variance (ANOVA) used to analyse.
Provides max no. of degrees of freedom to the error
Used when experimental areas are homogeneous

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 Randomized Block Design (R.B.Design)

Extension of C.R. Design

Principle of Local Control is applied
Subjects are divided into groups, known as blocks, such that
they are relatively homogeneous with respect to selected
variable. And then a treatment per block is given.
Blocks are levels at which we hold the extraneous factor fixed,
so that its contribution to the total variability of data can be
measured.
Analysed by the 2-way ANOVA.

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Latin Square Design (L.S. Design)

Very frequently used in agricultural research

There are two major extraneous factors such as the
varying soil fertility and varying seeds
Treatment is so allocated in plots so that no treatment
occurs more than once in any one row or any one
column.
Analysis similar to 2-way ANOVA

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Latin Square Design (L.S. Design)

Merit : enables diff in a variable to be eliminated in

comparison to effects of different treatments.
Limitation :
Considerable diff in row and column means. i.e. No
interaction between treatments and blocking factors.
Also no. of rows and columns have to be equal.; this
reduces utility
Factorial Designs

Used when effects of varying two or more factors are

to be determined
Primary as well as Interaction effects of different
levels of independent variables are measured
Simple / 2 –Factor Factorial Design & Complex /
Multi-factor factorial design

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