ECE-656: Fall 2009

Lecture 8:
Thermoelectric Effects
Professor Mark Lundstrom
Electrical and Computer Engineering
Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN USA

(Revised 9/13/09)
Lundstrom EE-656 F09 1
 acknowledgement

The author would like to thank Ms. Raseong Kim and

Mr. Changwook Jeong for their many contributions to
this lecture.

2 Lundstrom ECE-656 F09

 outline

1)  Introduction
2)  One energy level formulation
3)  Distribution of energy levels
4)  Discussion
5)  Summary

3 Lundstrom ECE-656 F09

 Seebeck effect

T1 T2 > T1 ΔV ∝ ΔT
ΔV = −SΔT
n-type semiconductor

I =0 S is the “Seebeck
coefficient” in V/K
− +
S < 0 for n-type conduction
ΔV = ? S is also called the
thermopower, α

The Seebeck effect was discovered in 1821 by Thomas Seebeck. It also

occurs between the junction of two dissimilar metals at different temperatures.
It is the basis for temperature measurement with thermocouples and for
4
thermoelectric power generation.
 Peltier effect

Ix < 0
ΔI Q ΔI Q IQ ∝ I
IQ > 0 I Q = −π I
I >0
π is the Peltier coefficient
n-type semiconductor in W/A
There is a close connection
between the Peltier
I→ coefficient and the Seebeck
coefficient.
x π = TS “Kelvin relation”

The Peltier effect was discovered in 1834 by Jean-Charles Peltier and

5
explained in 1838 by Lenz. It finds use in thermoelectric cooling.
 thermoelectric devices
cool
figure of merit:

S 2G T
ZT =
K

N-type P-type
I I

hot hot

1)  refrigeration and electronic cooling

2)  power generation from waste heat
6 (also thermionic devices)
 materials characterization

“Thermoelectric and Magneto-

thermoelectric Transport Measurements of
Graphene,” Y.M. Zuev, W. Chang, and P.
Kim, Phys. Rev. Lett., 102, 096807, 2009.

FIG. 1 (a) Conductivity and (b) TEP of a graphene sample as a function of Vg for TL = 300 K
(square), 150 K (circle), 80 K (up triangle), 40 K (down triangle), and 10 K (diamond).
7
Upper inset: SEM image of a typical device, the scale bar is 2 microns.
 questions

1)  What electric current, I, flows when there is a

difference in Fermi levels and temperature across a
device?

2)  What heat current, IQ, flows for a given ΔEF and ΔT ?

3)  How are the electric and heat currents related?

4)  What determines the sign and magnitude of the TE

coefficients?
8 Lundstrom ECE-656 F09
 outline

1)  Introduction
2)  One level energy formulation
3)  Distribution of energy levels
4)  Discussion
5)  Summary

9 Lundstrom ECE-656 F09

 one energy model

E
electrons absorb single energy electrons
thermal energy, transport dissipate energy,
E - EF1 E - EF2

energy absorbed energy dissipated

EF1 EF 2 = EF1 − qV
electrons enter T1
Net power
contact 1 at the
dissipated: electrons
Fermi energy, EF1 T2
PD = IV leave contact
2 at the Fermi
contact 1
energy,
x EF2
contact 2

V
10
 when ΔT = 0, the driving force is: ΔEF

ΔEF ( −qΔV )
f0 ( E )

∂f0 ⎞
f2 ( E ) f1 ( E )
( f1 − f2 ) ≈ ⎛⎜⎝ − ⎟⎠ qΔV
∂E

EF E
EF − qV

11 Lundstrom ECE-656 F09

 driving force: differences in temperature

∂f1 f0 ( E ) ΔT = T2 − T1
( f1 − f2 ) ≈ f1 − ⎜⎝ f1 + ΔT ⎞⎟⎠
⎛
∂T
∂f1
=− ΔT
∂T
f2 ( E ) f1 ( E )

∂f1
=−
( E − EF ) ⎛ ∂f0 ⎞
⎜⎝ ⎟⎠
∂T T ∂E
EF E

⎛ ∂f0 ⎞ ( E − EF )
( f1 ≈ f2 ≈ f0 ) ( f1 − f2 ) ≈ − ⎜⎝ − ⎟⎠ ΔT
∂E T

12
Lundstrom ECE-656 F09
 driving force: differences in both EF and T

f0 ( E )
f1 ( E )

f2 ( E )

EF 2 EF1 E

⎛ ∂f0 ⎞ ⎛ ∂f0 ⎞ ( E − EF )
( f1 − f2 ) ≈ ⎜⎝ − ⎟⎠ qΔV − ⎜⎝ − ⎟⎠ ΔT
∂E ∂E T

13 Lundstrom ECE-656 F09

 one energy model: result

2q
E I +
I −
I ( E0 ) = T ( E0 ) M ( E0 ) ( f1 − f2 )
h
EF1 ⎛ ∂f0 ⎞ ⎛ ∂f0 ⎞ ( E − EF )
T1 EF 2 ( f1 − f2 ) ≈ ⎜⎝ − ⎟⎠ qΔV − ⎜⎝ − ⎟⎠ ΔT
∂E ∂E T
T2
contact 1
x
I ( E0 ) = G ( E0 ) ΔV − ⎡⎣ SG ( E0 ) ⎤⎦ ΔT
contact 2

2q 2 ⎛ ∂f ⎞
G ( E0 ) = T ( E0 ) M ( E0 ) ⎜ − 0 ⎟
h ⎝ ∂E ⎠

2q ⎛ ∂f0 ⎞ ⎛ E − EF ⎞
⎡⎣ SG ( E0 ) ⎤⎦ = T ( E0 ) M ( E0 ) ⎜ − ⎟ ⎜
h ⎝ ∂E ⎠ ⎝ T ⎟⎠

14 Lundstrom ECE-656 F09

 two forms of the result

I ( E0 ) = G ( E0 ) ΔV − ⎡⎣ SG ( E0 ) ⎤⎦ ΔT

2q 2 ⎛ ∂f ⎞
G ( E0 ) = T ( E0 ) M ( E0 ) ⎜ − 0 ⎟
h ⎝ ∂E ⎠
2q ⎛ ∂f0 ⎞ ⎛ E0 − EF ⎞
⎡⎣ SG ( E0 ) ⎤⎦ = T ( E0 ) M ( E0 ) ⎜ − ⎟ ⎜
h ⎝ ∂E ⎠ ⎝ T ⎟⎠

ΔV = R ( E0 ) I ( E0 ) − S ( E0 ) ΔT

R ( E0 ) = 1 G ( E0 )
⎛ k B ⎞ ( E0 − E F )
S ( E0 ) = − ⎡⎣ SG ( E0 ) ⎤⎦ G ( E0 ) S ( E0 ) = ⎜ − ⎟
⎝ q ⎠ k BT
15
 but there is more to the story….

E I I Electrons carry charge, so there

I Q1 I Q2
is an electrical current.
EF1
T1 EF 2 2q
I ( E0 ) = T ( E0 ) M ( E0 ) ( f1 − f2 )
T2 h
contact 1
x
contact 2
But electrons also carry heat
(thermal energy), so there is a
heat current too.
2 ( E0 − EF1 )
I Q1 ( E0 ) = T ( E0 ) M ( E0 ) ( f1 − f2 )
h
2 ( E0 − E F 2 )
I Q2 ( E0 ) = T ( E0 ) M ( E0 ) ( f1 − f2 )
h
16
Lundstrom ECE-656 F09
 near-equilibrium heat current
2 ( E0 − E F ) f1 ≈ f2 ≈ f0
I Q1 ≈ I Q2 = I Q ( E0 ) = T ( E0 ) M ( E0 ) ( f1 − f2 )
h

( f1 − f2 ) ≈ C1 ( E0 ) qΔV + C2 ( E0 ) ΔT

2 ⎧
⎛ ∂f0 ⎞ ⎪
I Q ( E0 ) = T ( E0 ) M ( E0 ) ⎜ − ⎟ ⎨( E0 − EF ) qΔV −
( E0 − E F )
2
⎫⎪
ΔT ⎬
h ⎝ ∂E ⎠ ⎪ T ⎪⎭
⎩

I Q ( E0 ) = T ⎡⎣ SG ( E0 ) ⎤⎦ ΔV − K 0 ( E0 ) ΔT

2 ( E0 − E F )
2
⎛ ∂f0 ⎞
⎡⎣ K 0 ( E0 ) ⎤⎦ = T ( E0 ) M ( E0 ) ⎜ − ⎟
h T ⎝ ∂E ⎠
17
Lundstrom ECE-656 F09
 one level summary

2q 2 ⎛ ∂f ⎞
G ( E0 ) = T ( E0 ) M ( E0 ) ⎜ − 0 ⎟
h ⎝ ∂E ⎠
I ( E0 ) = G ( E0 ) ΔV − ⎡⎣ SG ( E0 ) ⎤⎦ ΔTL ( E − EF ) G E
⎡⎣ SG ( E0 ) ⎤⎦ = 0 ( 0)
qT
I Q ( E0 ) = T ⎡⎣ SG ( E0 ) ⎤⎦ ΔV − K 0 ( E0 ) ΔT
2
⎛ E0 − E F ⎞ 1
⎡⎣ K 0 ( E0 ) ⎤⎦ = ⎜ ⎟ G ( E0 )
⎝ q ⎠ T
1
R ( E0 ) =
G ( E0 )
ΔV = R ( E0 ) I ( E0 ) − S ( E0 ) ΔT
⎛ k B ⎞ ( E0 − E F )
S ( E0 ) = ⎜ − ⎟
⎝ q ⎠ k BT
I Q ( E0 ) = −π ( E0 ) I ( E0 ) − K e ( E0 ) ΔT
π ( E0 ) = T S ( E0 )

But is there a more physical way K e ( E0 ) = K 0 ( E0 ) − T S ( E0 ) G ( E0 )

2

to understand
18 these coefficients?
 Seebeck coefficient

VOC
S≡
ΔT
E single energy
transport f1 ( E0 ) = f0 ( E0 )
E0
1 1
( E0 − E F ) =
EF EF − qV 1+ e kB T1
1 + e( E0 − EF + qVOC ) kB T2
T1

T2 > T1 ( E0 − EF ) = ( E0 − EF + qVOC )
kBT1 kBT2
contact 1 contact 2 x
T2 = T1 + ΔT

S=
VOC
=−
( E0 − E F )
ΔT qT
19
Lundstrom EE-656 F09
 Peltier coefficient

IQ
π≡
−I T1 =T2
E single energy
−I ( E0 ) transport

( E0 − E F ) ( I ( E0 ) q )
π ( E0 ) =
E0
( E − EF ) −I ( E0 )
EF EF − qV
T1
π ( E0 ) = −
( E0 − E F )
T1 q

contact 1 contact 2 x S=
VOC
=−
( E0 − E F )
ΔT qT

π = TS
20 Lundstrom ECE-656 F09
 coupled currents

R ( E0 ) = 1 G ( E0 )
2q 2 ⎛ ∂f ⎞
G ( E0 ) = T ( E0 ) M ( E0 ) ⎜ − 0 ⎟
ΔV = R ( E0 ) I ( E0 ) − S ( E0 ) ΔT h ⎝ ∂E ⎠ E0

I Q ( E0 ) = −π ( E0 ) I ( E0 ) − K e ( E0 ) ΔT
S ( E0 ) =−
( E0 − E F )
qT

π ( E0 ) = TS ( E0 )

K e ( E0 ) = ?
21
Lundstrom ECE-656 F09
 thermal conductance

I Q ( E0 ) = −π ( E0 ) I ( E0 ) − K e ( E0 ) ΔT
E single energy
transport −I Q ( E0 )
K e ( E0 ) ≡
E0 ΔT I ( E0 ) = 0

EF EF − qV
I ( E0 ) = 0 ⇒ I Q ( E0 ) = 0
T1

T2 > T1

contact 1 contact 2 x K e ( E0 ) = 0

(in the single level model)

22 Lundstrom ECE-656 F09

 one level summary

2q 2 ⎛ ∂f ⎞
G ( E0 ) = T ( E0 ) M ( E0 ) ⎜ − 0 ⎟
h ⎝ ∂E ⎠

⎡⎣ SG ( E0 ) ⎤⎦ = 0
( E − EF ) G E
K e ( E0 ) = K 0 ( E0 ) − T S ( E0 ) G ( E0 )
2 ( 0)
qT
2 2
⎛ E − EF ⎞ 1 ⎛ E − EF ⎞ 1
=⎜ 0 G ( E0 ) ⎡⎣ K 0 ( E0 ) ⎤⎦ = ⎜ 0 G ( E0 )
⎝ q ⎟⎠ T ⎝ q ⎟⎠ T
⎧⎛ k ⎞ ( E − E F ) ⎫
2
1
−T ⎨⎜ − B ⎟ 0 ⎬ G ( E0 ) R ( E0 ) =
⎪⎩⎝ q ⎠ kBT ⎪⎭ G ( E0 )
=0 ⎛ k B ⎞ ( E0 − E F )
S ( E0 ) = ⎜ − ⎟
⎝ q ⎠ k BT

π ( E0 ) = T S ( E0 )

K e ( E0 ) = K 0 ( E0 ) − T S ( E0 ) G ( E0 )
2

23
 outline

1)  Introduction
2)  One energy level formulation
3)  Distribution of energy levels
4)  Discussion
5)  Summary

24 Lundstrom ECE-656 F09

 real materials
Real materials have a distribution of energy channels in
the conduction and valence bands. We must add up the
contributions of each of these energy channels.

linear response

I ( E ) = G ( E ) ΔV − ⎡⎣ SG ( E ) ⎤⎦ ΔT

I Q ( E ) = T ⎡⎣ SG ( E ) ⎤⎦ ΔV − K 0 ( E ) ΔT

25 Lundstrom ECE-656 F09

 total currents
For a distribution of channels, we add up the contributions of
each channel. +∞

I = ∫ I ( E ) dE = GΔV − [ SG ] ΔT
−∞
I ( E ) = G ( E ) ΔV − ⎡⎣ SG ( E ) ⎤⎦ ΔT
+∞ +∞
2q 2 ⎛ ∂f0 ⎞
G = ∫ G ( E ) dE = ∫ T ( E ) M ( E ) ⎜⎝ − ⎟⎠ dE
∂E
I Q ( E ) = TL ⎡⎣ SG ( E ) ⎤⎦ ΔV − K 0 ( E ) ΔT −∞
h −∞

+∞

[ SG ] = ∫ ⎡⎣ SG ( E )⎤⎦ dE
−∞

⎛ 1 ⎞ ( E − EF )
+∞

I = GΔV − [ SG ] ΔT = ∫−∞ ⎜⎝ T ⎟⎠ q G ( E ) dE
+∞
I Q = T [ SG ] ΔV − K 0 ΔT K0 = ∫ ⎡⎣ K ( E )⎤⎦ dE
−∞
0

+∞ 2
1 ⎛ E − EF ⎞
= ∫ ⎜
T ⎝ q ⎟⎠ G ( E ) dE
26 −∞
 TE integrals

+∞

I= ∫ I ( E ) dE = GΔV − [ SG ] ΔT
−∞

+∞ +∞
All TE coefficients involve G = ∫ G ( E ) dE =
2q 2
( ) ( ) ⎛ ∂f0 ⎞
similar integrals: −∞
h ∫−∞ T E M E ⎜⎝ − ⎟⎠ dE
∂E

+∞
+∞
⎛ E − EF ⎞
j
[ SG ] = ∫ ⎡⎣ SG ( E )⎤⎦ dE
Ij = ∫ ⎜ ⎟ G ( E ) dE −∞
⎝ kT ⎠
⎛ 1 ⎞ ( E − EF )
−∞ B L +∞

= ∫−∞ ⎜⎝ T ⎟⎠ q G ( E ) dE
2q 2 ⎛ ∂f ⎞
G (E) = T (E ) M (E )⎜ − 0 ⎟ +∞
h ⎝ ∂E ⎠
K0 =
−∞
∫ ⎡⎣ K ( E )⎤⎦ dE
0

+∞ 2
1 ⎛ E − EF ⎞
= ∫ ⎜
T ⎝ q ⎟⎠ G ( E ) dE
−∞
27
 TE integrals (ii)

All TE coefficients involve I = GΔV − [ SG ] ΔT

similar integrals:
2q 2 ⎛ kB ⎞
G= I0 [ SG ] = ⎜ − ⎟ I1
+∞ j h ⎝ q⎠
⎛ E − EF ⎞
Ij = ∫ ⎜ ⎟ G ( E ) dE
−∞ ⎝ kT ⎠
I Q = T [ SG ] ΔV − K 0 ΔT
B L

2q 2 ⎛ ∂f ⎞
G (E) = T (E ) M (E )⎜ − 0 ⎟ ⎛k T⎞⎛k ⎞
h ⎝ ∂E ⎠ K0 = ⎜ B ⎟ ⎜ B ⎟ I2
⎝ q ⎠⎝ q ⎠

28
 alternative formulation

(
G = 1 R = 2q 2 h I 0 )
linear response
[ SG ] ⎛ kB ⎞ I1
I = GΔV − [ SG ] ΔT S=−
G
= − ⎜⎝ q ⎟⎠ I 0

I Q = T [ SG ] ΔV − K e ΔT π = TS

⎛ 2kB2T ⎞ ⎡ I12 ⎤
Ke = ⎜ ⎟ ⎢ I2 − ⎥
⎝ h ⎠⎣ I0 ⎦
ΔV = RI − SΔT
+∞ j
⎛ E − EF ⎞
I Q = −π I − K e ΔT Ij = ∫ ⎜ ⎟ G ( E ) dE
−∞⎝ kT ⎠
B L

2q 2 ⎛ ∂f0 ⎞
G (E) = T (E ) M (E )⎜ − ⎟
29 h ⎝ ∂E ⎠
 outline

1)  Introduction
2)  One energy level formulation
3)  Distribution of energy levels
4)  Discussion
5)  Summary

30 Lundstrom ECE-656 F09

 Seebeck coefficient of a bulk semiconductor
[ SG ] = ⎛ − kB ⎞ I1 +∞ j
⎛ E − EF ⎞ ⎛ ∂f0 ⎞
S=− ⎜⎝ q ⎟⎠ I Ij = ∫ ⎜ ⎟ T ( E ) M ( E ) ⎜⎝ − ⎟⎠ dE
G 0 −∞⎝ kT ⎠
B L ∂E

λ0
( )
M E =
m*
(
E − ε1 A T E = )
L
( ) (diffusive)
2π  2

Result: (
η F ≡ E F − EC ) k BT non-degenerate

S3D =⎜ ⎟⎜
( )
⎛ k B ⎞ ⎛ 2F 1 η F ⎞
− ηF ⎟ S3D
⎛ kB ⎞ ⎛
= ⎜ ⎟ ⎜2−
(
E F − EC ⎞ )
⎟
−q
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ F 0 ηF( ) ⎠ −q
⎝ ⎠⎝ k B
T ⎠

Independent of scattering (if mfp is independent of energy).

Independent of m* (for parabolic energy bands).
31
Lundstrom ECE-656 F09
 Seebeck coefficient of bulk semiconductors

−S E I+ I−

EF1
T1 EF 2
T2
contact 1
x
contact 2

EC EF

( E − EF )= k ( )
⎛ k B ⎞ ⎛ 2F 1 η F ⎞
S=−
C

qT −q
( −η )
B
F
S3D =⎜ ⎟⎜
−q
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ F 0 ηF ( )
− ηF ⎟
⎠

32
Lundstrom ECE-656 F09
 Seebeck coefficient and scattering

+∞ j
⎛ 2q ⎞ 2
⎛ E − EF ⎞ ⎛ ∂f0 ⎞
G=⎜
⎝ h ⎠⎟ I0 Ij = ∫ ⎜⎝ k T ⎟⎠ ( ) ( ) ⎜⎝ − ∂E ⎟⎠ dE
−∞ B
T E M E

⎛ k B ⎞ I1 ( )
λ E
( ) ( )
( )
s
S = ⎜− ⎟ T E = λ E = λ0 E k BT
⎝ q ⎠ I0 L
τ ( E) = τ ( E k T)
r
0 B

⎛⎛ D + 1⎞ ⎞
kB ⎜ ⎜⎝
s + ⎟ F
2 ⎠ s + ( D −1) 2 F
(η ) ⎟
S=− ⎜ − (ηF )⎟ “power law scattering”
q ⎜ F s + ( D − 3) 2 (ηF ) ⎟
⎝ ⎠
2 D = 1, 2, 3 dimensions
2q
G= F s + ( D − 3) 2 (ηF )
h
33
Lundstrom ECE-656 F09
 Seebeck coefficient and scattering

kB ⎛ ( s + 2 )F s +1 (ηF ) ⎞
S3D =− ⎜ − (ηF )⎟
q ⎝ F s (ηF ) ⎠

Common values of s:
ionized impurity scattering:
r = 3/2 s = 2

acoustic phonon scattering:

r = -1/2 s = 0

( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
s r
λ E = λ0 E k BT τ E = τ 0 E k BT

34 Changwook Jeong, Purdue University 2009

 “full band” Seebeck coefficient

Changwook Jeong, Purdue University 2009

35 Lundstrom ECE-656 F09
 thin films and nanowires

⎛ kB ⎞
Sδ = ⎜ ⎟ −η F
⎝ −q ⎠
( )

S1D =⎜ ⎟⎜
( )
⎛ k B ⎞ ⎛ F 0 ηF ⎞
− ηF ⎟
( )
⎝ −q ⎠ ⎝ F −1 η F ⎠ Sδ =
(E
C
− EF
qT
)

⎛ k ⎞ ⎛ 3F (η ) ⎞
−η
1/ 2 F
S2 D =⎜ ⎟⎜B
F⎟
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ 2F (η )
−q −1/ 2 F ⎠

S3D =⎜ ⎟⎜
( )
⎛ k B ⎞ ⎛ 2F 1 η F ⎞
− ηF ⎟
−q
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ F 0 ηF( ) ⎠
(parabolic bands) R. Kim, et. al, J. Appl. Phys., 105, 034506,
2009
36 Lundstrom ECE-656 F09
 Seebeck coefficient of graphene
⎛ k ⎞I
S = ⎜− B ⎟ 1
⎝ q ⎠ I0
M 2 D ( E ) = W 2E π υ F E>0
+∞ j
⎛ E − EF ⎞ ⎛ ∂f0 ⎞
Ij = ∫ ⎜⎝ k T ⎟⎠ T ( E ) M ( E ) ⎜⎝ − ⎟⎠ dE
−∞ B ∂E E
λ0
( )
T E =
L
(diffusive) E = υ F k

k
Result:

S = ⎜−
( ( )
k B ⎛ 2 F 1 η F − F 1 −η F ( )) + η ⎞
⎟
( )
q ⎜⎝ F 0 η F + F 0 −η F ( ) F
⎟⎠
M 2 D ( E ) = −W 2E π υ F E<0

37 Lundstrom ECE-656 F09

 S vs. Fermi level

S = ⎜−
( ( ) ( )) + η
k B ⎛ 2 F 1 η F − F 1 −η F ⎞
⎟
( ) ( )
q ⎜⎝ F 0 η F + F 0 −η F F
⎟⎠

E = υ F k

Y. M. Zuev, W. Chang, and P. Kim, “Thermoelectric abd Magnetothermoelectric

Transport
38 Measurements of Graphene,” Phys. Rev. Lett, 109, 096807, 2009.
 outline

1)  Introduction
2)  One energy level formulation
3)  Distribution of energy levels
4)  Discussion
5)  Summary

39 Lundstrom ECE-656 F09

 one energy model

E
electrons absorb single energy electrons
thermal energy, transport dissipate energy,
E - EF1 E - EF2

EF1 EF 2 = EF1 − qV
electrons enter T1
Net power
contact 1 at the
dissipated: electrons
Fermi energy, EF1 T2
PD = IV leave contact
2 at the Fermi
contact 1
energy,
x EF2
contact 2

V
40
 one-level model

E I I
I Q1 I Q2 2q 2 ⎛ ∂f ⎞
G ( E0 ) = T ( E0 ) M ( E0 ) ⎜ − 0 ⎟
h ⎝ ∂E ⎠
EF1
T1 EF 2
1
R ( E0 ) =
contact 1
T2 G ( E0 )
x
contact 2

⎛ k ⎞ ( E − EF )
S ( E0 ) = ⎜ − B ⎟ 0
⎝ q ⎠ k BT
ΔV = R ( E0 ) I ( E0 ) − S ( E0 ) ΔT

I Q ( E0 ) = −π ( E0 ) I ( E0 ) − K e ( E0 ) ΔT
π ( E0 ) = T S ( E0 )

K e ( E0 ) = 0
41
 distribution of levels

I
( )
G = 1 R = 2q 2 h I 0
E I
I Q1 I Q2
⎛ k ⎞I
S = ⎜− B ⎟ 1
EF1 ⎝ q ⎠ I0
T1 EF 2
T2 π = TS
contact 1
x
contact 2 ⎛ 2kB2T ⎞ ⎡ I12 ⎤
Ke = ⎜ ⎟ ⎢ I2 − ⎥
⎝ q ⎠⎣ I0 ⎦

ΔV = RI − SΔT +∞ j
⎛ E − EF ⎞
Ij = ∫ ⎜ G ( E ) dE
I Q = −π I − K e ΔT −∞⎝ k T ⎟⎠
B L

2q 2 ⎛ ∂f ⎞
G (E) = T (E ) M (E )⎜ − 0 ⎟
h ⎝ ∂E ⎠
42
 questions

1)  Introduction
2)  One energy level formulation
3)  Distribution of energy levels
4)  Discussion
5)  Summary

Lundstrom ECE-656 F09 43