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Open Channels: Topic 861 - General
Open Channels: Topic 861 - General
and design. Early coordination with these agencies or deposition of transported material when the
is also recommended. grade is flattened.
Ideally, a drainage channel should have flow
861.9 References velocities that neither erode nor cause deposition in
Information on design of highway drainage the channel. This optimum velocity is dependent
channels is included in FHWA's Hydraulic Design on the size and slope of channel, the quantity of
Series No. 4, "Introduction to Highway Hydraulics" flowing water, the material used to line the channel,
and Hydraulic Design Series No. 3, "Design Charts the nature of the bedding soil and the sediment
for Open Channel Flow". being transported by the flow. Refer to Table
862.2 for recommended permissible flow velocities
For a general textbook discussion of open channel
in unlined channels.
hydraulics, reference is made to "Open-Channel
Hydraulics" by Ven Te Chow. In addition, many The point of discharge into a natural watercourse
helpful design aids are included in "Handbook of requires special attention. Water entering a natural
Hydraulics", by Brater and King. watercourse from a highway drainage channel
should not cause eddies with attendant scour of the
natural watercourse. In erodible embankment soils,
Topic 862 - Channel Location if the flow line of the drainage channel is
appreciably higher than that of the watercourse at
862.1 General the point of discharge, then the use of a spillway
Assuming adequate functional design, the next may be advisable to prevent erosion of the channel.
most important design consideration is channel
location. Locations that avoid poorly drained
areas, unstable soil conditions, and frequently
flooded areas can greatly reduce drainage related
problems. Refer to Index 110.4 for discussion on
wetlands protection.
Often drainage and open channel considerations are
not considered the primary decision factors in the
roadway location; however they are factors which
will often directly or indirectly affect many other
considerations. Often minor alignment adjustments
can avoid serious drainage problems.
If a channel can be located far enough away from
the highway, the concerns of traffic safety and
aesthetics can be somewhat mitigated. The cost of
additional right of way may be offset somewhat by
the reduced cost of erosion control, traffic
protection, and landscaping.
Table 862.2
It should be recognized by the design engineer that For narrow channels, L, is limited to the bottom
streams have inherent dynamic qualities by which width.
changes continually occur in stream position and For large flows, consideration should be given to
shape. These changes may be slow or rapid, but all using a minimum bottom width of 4 m for
streams are subjected to the forces that cause these construction and maintenance purposes, but depths
changes to occur. For example, in alluvial streams, of flow less than 0.3 m are not recommended.
i.e., streams whose beds and banks are composed of
materials deposited in water, it is the rule rather 863.4 Rectangular
than the exception that banks erode, sediments are Rectangular channels are often used to convey
deposited, and islands and side channels form and large flows in areas with limited right of way. At
disappear with time. A general understanding of some locations, guardrail or other types of positive
fluvial geomorphology and river mechanics can traffic barrier may be necessary between the
help evaluate and resolve problems associated with traveled way and the channel.
alluvial streams. Reference is made to the FHWA
publication entitled Highways in the River Though rectangular channels are relatively
Environment - Hydraulic and Environmental expensive to construct, since the walls must be
Design Considerations. designed as earth retaining structures, the
construction costs can be somewhat offset by the
reduced costs associated with right of way,
863.2 Triangular V-Ditch
materials, and channel excavation.
The shape of a channel section is generally
determined by considering the intended purpose,
terrain, flow velocity and quantity of flow to be
Topic 864 - Hydraulic Design of
conveyed. Channels
The triangular channel or V-ditch is intended 864.1 General
primarily for low flow conditions such as in median
and roadside ditches. V-shaped ditches are Open channel hydraulic design is of particular
susceptible to erosion and will require lining when importance to highway design because of the
flow velocities exceed the permissible flow interrelationship of channels to most highway
velocities in Table 862.2. drainage facilities.
The hydraulic principles of open channel flow are
863.3 Trapezoidal based on steady state uniform flow conditions, as
The most common channel shape for large flows is defined in Index 864.2. Though these conditions
the trapezoidal section. are rarely achieved in the field, generally the
variation in channel properties is sufficiently small
Trapezoidal channels are easily constructed by that the use of uniform flow theory will yield
machinery and are often the most economical. sufficiently accurate results.
When a wide trapezoidal section is proposed, both
traffic safety and aesthetics can be improved by
860-6 HIGHWAY DESIGN MANUAL
June 26, 2006
V2
Table 864.3A 2g
= Velocity head, in meters
Average Values for Manning's When the depth of flow is plotted against the
Roughness Coefficient (n) specific energy, for a given discharge and
channel section, the resulting plot is called a
specific energy diagram (see Figure 864.3C).
Type of Channel n value The curve shows that for a given specific
energy there are two possible depths, a high
Unlined Channels:
stage and a low stage. These flow depths are
Clay Loam 0.023 called alternate depths. Starting at the upper
Sand 0.020 right of the curve with a large depth and small
Gravel 0.030 velocity, the specific energy decreases with a
Rock 0.040 decrease in depth, reaching a minimum energy
content at a depth of flow known as critical
Lined Channels: depth. A further decrease in flow depth results
Portland Cement Concrete 0.014 in a rapid increase in specific energy.
Air Blown Mortar (troweled) 0.012
Flow at critical depth is called critical flow.
Air Blown Mortar (untroweled) 0.016 The flow velocity at critical depth is called
Air Blown Mortar (roughened) 0.025 critical velocity. The channel slope which
Asphalt Concrete 0.018 produces critical depth and critical velocity for
Sacked Concrete 0.025 a given discharge is the critical slope.
Pavement and Gutters: Uniform flow within approximately 10 percent
Portland Cement Concrete 0.015 of critical depth is unstable and should be
avoided in design, if possible. The reason for
Asphalt Concrete 0.016
this can be seen by referring to the specific
Depressed Medians: energy diagram. As the flow approaches
Earth (without growth) 0.040 critical depth from either limb of the curve, a
Earth (with growth) 0.050 very small change in energy is required for the
depth to abruptly change to the alternate depth
Gravel 0.055
on the opposite limb of the specific energy
NOTES: curve. If the unstable flow region cannot be
For additional values of n, see "Introduction to avoided in design, the least favorable type of
Highway Hydraulics", Hydraulic Design Series flow should be assumed for the design.
No. 4, FHWA Table 14.
When the depth of flow is greater than critical
depth, the velocity of flow is less than critical
velocity for a given discharge and hence, the
(6) Critical Flow. A useful concept in hydraulic flow is subcritical. Conversely, when the depth
analysis is that of "specific energy". The of flow is less than critical depth, the flow is
specific energy at a given section is defined as supercritical.
the total energy, or total head, of the flowing
water with respect to the channel bottom. For a When velocities are supercritical, air
channel of small slope; entrainment may occur. This produces a
bulking effect which increases the depth of
2 flow. For concrete lined channels, the normal
E=d+ V depth of flow with bulking can be computed by
2g
using a Manning's "n" value of 0.018 instead of
Where E = Specific energy, in meters the 0.014 value given in Table 864.3A. Air
d = Depth of flow, in meters entrainment also causes a reduction in channel
HIGHWAY DESIGN MANUAL 860-9
June 26, 2006
friction with a resulting increase in flow Critical depth for a given channel is dependent
velocity. A Manning's "n" value of about on the channel geometry and discharge only,
0.008 is recommended for computing the and is independent of channel slope and
velocity and specific energy of flow in roughness.
concrete-lined channels carrying supercritical
When flow occurs at critical depth the
flow
following relationship must be satisfied
3 2
A /T = Q /g
Figure 864.3C
Where A = Cross sectional area, in square
meters
Specific Energy Diagram T = Top width of water surface, in
meters
3
Q = Discharge, in m /s
g = Acceleration of gravity,
9.81 m/s2
Critical depth formulas, based on the above
equation, for various channel cross-sections
include:
• Rectangular sections,
2 1/3
d = (q /g)
c
3
Where q = Flow per unit width, in m /s
• Trapezoidal sections. The tables in King's
"Handbook of Hydraulics" provide easy
solutions for critical depth for channels of
varying side slopes and bottom widths.
Critical depth is an important hydraulic
parameter because it is always a hydraulic • Circular sections. The tables in King's
control. Hydraulic controls are points along "Handbook of Hydraulics" can be used for
the channel where the water level or depth of obtaining easy solutions for critical depth.
flow is limited to a predetermined level or can (7) Froude Number. The Froude number is a
be computed directly from the quantity of flow. useful parameter which uniquely describes
Flow must pass through critical depth in going open flow. The Froude number is a
from subcritical flow to supercritical flow. dimensionless value:
Typical locations of critical depth are at:
1/2
(a) Abrupt changes in channel slope when a Fr = V/(gD)
flat (subcritical) slope is sharply increased Where D = A/T = Hydraulic depth, in
to a steep (supercritical) slope, meters
(b) A channel constriction such as a culvert Fr < 1.0 ==> Subcritical flow
entrance under some conditions,
Fr = 1.0 ==> Critical flow
(c) The unsubmerged outlet of a culvert on
subcritical slope, discharging into a wide Fr > 1.0 ==> Supercritical flow
channel or with a free fall at the outlet, and
(d) The crest of an overflow dam or weir.
860-10 HIGHWAY DESIGN MANUAL
June 26, 2006
• Trapezoidal Channels.
(2) Critical Flow. An unstable zone of flow occurs
where the flow is near critical state. This is V 2 (b + 2K d)
Subcritical flow E=
characterized by random waves. An allowance 2(gr - 2K V )
2
for waves should be added to the normal depth
when the slope of the channel is between 0.7
S and 1.3 S . V 2(b + 2K d)
c c Supercritical flow E= 2
2 gr - 2K V
H = 0.25 d (1 - 11.1 (S/S - 1) )
w c c
Where E = Maximum height of water surface
where H = height of wave, in meters
w in meters above depth "d".
d = critical depth, in meters
c
HIGHWAY DESIGN MANUAL 860-13
June 26, 2006