Materials and Structures/MatOriaux et Constructions, 1991, 24, 302-307

104-DCC REPORT

Damage to concrete structures in a marine environment

P. C. LIU
School of Civil Engineering, University of Technology, Sydney, PO Box 123,
NSW 2007, Australia

1. I N T R O D U C T I O N 2.1 Submerged zone

Concrete structures in a marine environment are exposed
simultaneously to the action of a number of physical and
chemical deterioration processes. Damage can vary from
aesthetic through to severe structural deterioration,
depending on the environment in which it resides. The
deterioration process may be the combined effects of
chemical action of sea-water constituents on cement
hydration products, crystallization of salts within con-
crete, alkali-aggregate expansion (if reactive aggregates
are present), corrosion of reinforcing bars, freezing and
thawing in a cold climate, and physical erosion due to
wave action and floating objects. Once the concrete is
attacked by any of these processes, the permeability tends
to increase and consequently it is more susceptible to
further attack by various processes.
The visual types of damage can include rust staining
and spalling (corrosion damage), leaching and cement
matrix breakdown (chemical attack), loss of section
(abrasion damage), cracking and deflections (structural
damage), and map cracking and exudations (alkali-
aggregate reactivity).
The chemical composition of sea-water is fairly
uniform and is characterized typically by the constituents
listed in Table 1 [1]. The ion concentrations of Na + and
CI- are the highest and the ion concentrations of Mg 2 +
and SO42- are sufficient to provide aggressive action on
cement hydration products. Another important aspect is
the dissolved CO 2 in sea-water forming carbonic acid
which will attack the cement matrix, causing leaching of
calcium from hydrated cement paste.
The submerged zone is that part of the structure kept
continuously under water. The rate of corrosion due to
chlorides in sea-water is also dependent on the availability
of oxygen. Corrosion of reinforcement seldom takes place
in the submerged parts of the structure due to lack of
oxygen.
2.2 Splash zone
The splash zone is that part of the structure subjected to
repeated wetting and drying by sea-water. This zone may
be taken as the area between the highest and the lowest
water levels reached by the waves, with a statistical return
period of six months. Concrete under these exposure
conditions is exposed to all kinds of physical and chemical
attack. Reinforcement is vulnerable to corrosion because
the combination of moisture, salts and oxygen is the most
favourable for corrosion of the reinforcement. It is also
the region subjected to damage due to salt crystallization
and freezing and thawing in a cold climate.
2.3 Atmospheric zone
The atmospheric zone is that part of the structure above
the splash zone. Damage is similar to that in the splash
zone but in a lesser degree. Physical abrasion due to wave
action and floating objects will not occur in this zone.
Reinforcing steel
/
9 i

2, E X P O S U R E C O N D I T I O N S Cracking due t o - - - - [ - -
COrrosion of steel I U
The type and severity of attack on concrete in a marine
FI-II:::"i
~ 'it
<)1 High tide
environment depend on the exposure conditions. Three d

different exposure zones are considered for the durability Cracking due to )
freezing and I
of concrete in a marine environment as illustrated in thawing L___
/"i;--_>2 -~ "~
Fig. 1 [23. Physical abrasion _ _ I\Q
due to wave action, I"
sand and gravel i--- ~'~".
Table 1 Constituents of sea-water and flowing ice |
~ ~ - -~ [----:'- Low tide
Chemical
Soluble salt 3.5% by weight decomposition of
Na § ion 11,000 mg ! - 1 h y d r a t e d cement
CI- ion 20,000 mg 1-1
Mg 2 + ion 1400 mg 1-1 ~ ,,~ ,o01
SO]- ion 2700 mg 1- I
pH value 7.5-8.4 I
Fig. 1 Deterioration of a concrete structure in sea-water.
0025-5432/91 C RILEM
 Materials and Structures
3. PHYSICAL ATTACK
3.1 Frost attack
Disintegration is caused by the freezing of water within
the pores of the concrete, the water expanding by 9?/0 on
freezing and creating disruptive pressure. If the induced
stress is higher than the strength of the hardened cement
paste, cracking will occur. The damage to the paste
increases with the number of freezing and thawing cycles.
Frost damage may be prevented by means of entrained
air.
Freeze-thaw damage to the aggregate depends largely
on the size, number and continuity of its pores.
Aggregates with low permeability and high strength are
more resistant to freeze-thaw action. The ability of
concrete to resist damage due to frost action depends on
the characteristics of both the cement paste and the
aggregate.
3.2 Erosion/abrasion
Erosion of concrete may occur from prolonged exposure
of the concrete to continual attrition by stones and shingle
carried by water, as may occur in hydraulic structures or
in sea-water. Good dense concrete will normally with-
stand a high-velocity flow of water, provided the flow is
smooth and streamlined. Concrete will abrade where
exposed to the forces of cavitation, i.e. the implosion of air
bubbles, as occurs in those portions of hydraulic
structures designed to dissipate energy by incorporating
obstructions to the free flow of water. The cavities
collapse with impact and sudden changes in direction,
resulting in pressure which may cause wearing (pitting) of
the concrete surface.
4. C H E M I C A L ATTACK
4.1 Chloride-induced corrosion
The ingress of chloride by capillary action via airborne
salt spray and/or the wetting and drying with sea-water is
the major contribution to chloride corrosion in marine
concrete structures. If there are chloride ions in the pore
water adjacent to the reinforcing steel above a certain
concentration, the passive iron oxide film breaks down. A
corrosion cell is set up with an adjacent area of passive
steel acting as a cathode where oxygen is reduced, and the
anodic dissolution of iron takes place at a small central
anode. Chloride contents from 0.1 to 0.4% or more may
initiate corrosion. The ingress o f chloride is a process of
sorption and ionic diffusion. Factors affecting the
transport process are material properties of the concrete,
prevailing environmental conditions, and the means by
which the chloride ions were introduced into the concrete.
The corrosion products, being of greater volume than
the parent metal, exert pressure and thus cause the
concrete to crack and eventually spall. Common types of
303
visual deterioration damage are rust staining, spalling,
exposed rebar and delamination.
4.2 Sulphate attack
Concrete is susceptible to attack by sulphate [3], causing
cracking and spalling due to expansion. Ultimately, the
concrete becomes friable and finally is reduced to a soft
mud. The main sulphate of interest in sea-water is
magnesium sulphate. Magnesium sulphate reacts with
calcium aluminates, silicates and lime in cement forming
magnesium hydroxide, calcium sulphate (gypsum)and
calcium sulphoaluminate (ettringite). The formation of
ettringite leads to expansion and fracture of the cemen-
titious matrix:
Magnesium + Calcium aluminate
sulphate hydrate (CAHP)
(MgSO4) Calcium silicate
Hydrate (CSH)
Lime (Ca(OH)z)
--+ Brucite + Gypsum + Ettringite
Mg(OH)2 CaSO4 Ca Sulphoaluminate
Deposited Deposited Leached
Ettringite is finally decomposed and gypsum precipitated,
leaving a soft concrete. An appreciable loss of strength
can occur, particularly when leaching conditions are
present. Magnesium and ammonium sulphates are the
most damaging to concrete. The type of sulphate and the
concentration present can influence the nature and rate of
decomposition.
4.3 Salt weathering
Under wetting and drying exposure conditions, soluble
salts can accumulate in high concentrations within the
zone where the moisture front ends under wetting
conditions. If the salt water flowing through the concrete
reaches the point of saturation, salt crystals will form and
continue to grow as evaporation proceeds. Such crystal
growth will generate hydraulic pressure causing spalling
of the concrete above the zone of crystal growth.
5. DURABILITY REQUIREMENTS OF AS3600
Design for durability has been recognised as a major
design consideration by Australian Standard AS3600 [4].
Minimum requirements are given for corrosion of
reinforcement in terms of concrete quality and cover of
reinforcement with respect to exposure conditions. The
exposure conditions are classified as follows:
(i) A1 and A2: relatively mild environments such as
(a) the interior of buildings,
(b) inland areas (> 50 km from coastline),
(c) elements protected by damp-proof membrane,
(d) non-industrial areas.
 304 104-DCC D a m a g e classification o f c o n c r e t e structures

Table 2 Protection against corrosion of reinforcement Table 4 Durability requirements for traffic abrasion

Exposure Min. characteristic Min. cement content Member and/or traffic Min. characteristic
strength, f~' (MPa) (kgm -3) strength, f2 (MPa)

A1 20 Footpaths, residential driveways 20

A2 25 Commercial and industrial floors
B1 32 285 not subject to vehicle traffic 25
B2 40 330 Pavements or floors subjected
C 50 400 to light pneumatic-tyred
traffic ( < 3 t gross mass) 25
Medium or heavy pneumatic-tyred
(ii) B1 and B2: moderately aggressive environments traffic (> 3 t gross mass) 32
such as Non-pneumatic-tyred traffic 40
Steel-wheeled traffic To be assessed
(a) industrial areas,
(b) B 1: near-coastal (1 km to 50 km from coastline),
(c) B2: coastal (up to l k m from coastline but
excluding tidal and splash zones), 5.4 Sulphate-ion content
(d) elements permanently submerged in sea-water,
The sulphate content in the form of acid-soluble SO3 is
(iii) C: tidal or splash zones, restricted to 5% by mass of cement.
(iv) U: environments for which AS3600 give no
guidance. They may be more severe than exposure
5.5 Abrasion
classification C.
The durability requirement for abrasion from traffic is
related to the characteristic compressive strength as given
5.1 Concrete quality
in Table 4.
The minimum requirements of concrete quality for
protection against corrosion of reinforcement are listed in
Table 2. 6. CASE STUDIES

6.1 Mooring jetty

5.2 Cover to reinforcement
This was a reinforced-concrete jetty, located on the south
The minimum cover requirements for corrosion protec- coast of Australia. It was constructed during 1980-81
tion are related to the exposure conditions as given in with steel tubular piles, cast in-situ reinforced concrete
Table 3. The use of the next lower strength grade is headstocks, precast concrete deck and edge beams, and
permitted when only one surface of the member is in the cast in-situ reinforced concrete deck. The concrete used
higher exposure classification. In this case the figures in sulphate-resistant cement of minimum cement content
brackets are the appropriate covers. For a surface in 380kgm -3. The concrete compressive strength was
contact with the ground the cover shall be increased by 25MPa for in-situ concrete and 30MPa for precast
20mm. If the surface is protected by a damp-proof concrete. The precast concrete units were coated with
membrane an increase in cover of only 10 mm is required. Vandex protective treatment and the piles were wrapped
with a Denso tape system.
5.3 Chloride-ion content A visual survey was carried out on the structure and
the following damage was observed.
The upper limit on chloride-ion content of concrete for
corrosion protection is 0.8 kg m - 3. (i) Severe cracking had occurred in most headstocks.
The main cracks ran along the reinforcement bars in the
bottom corner (Fig. 2).
Table 3 Corrosion protection of cover to reinforcement
(ii) Severe cracking occurred in the precast edge beams.
Exposure Required minimum cover (mm) The main cracks ran along the reinforcement bars in full
classification Characteristic strength, fr (MPa) length at the bottom of the beam (Figs 3 and 4).
(iii) The precast deck beams were generally in good
20 25 32 40 50 condition with only a few locations where corrosion had
taken place at reinforcement bar chairs.
AI 20 20 20 20 20 (iv) The cast in-situ deck appeared to be in good
A2 (50) 30 25 20 " 20 condition with no apparent corrosion taking place.
B1 (60) 40 30 25
B2 (65) 45 35 Chloride content tests at various depths to headstock and
C (70) 50 precast deck beams indicated that chloride contents were
high and passed the threshold level (0.4% by weight of
 Materials and Structures
Fig. 2 Longitudinal cracks in headstock concrete due to steel
reinforcement corrosion. Note high-tide mark on headstock.
Fig. 3 Longitudinal crack in underside of precast edge-beam.
Fig. 4 Large longitudinal cracks on inside edge of precast
edge-beam.
cement) for corrosion. Chloride extraction was used as a
trial method for repair to the headstock.
The equipment for chloride extraction was prepared on
site. The electrode net was made out of three layers of
chicken-wire mesh welded to an 8mm diameter wire
fabric which supported the electro]:te net during treat-
ment. A 10mm styrene layer was glued on to the wire
mesh electrode (Fig. 5).
305
Fig. 5 Preparation of electrode net.
Fig. 6 Headstock beam set-up for chloride extraction.
Panels of the prepared electrode net were attached to
the beam for chloride extraction. The styrene was kept
continuously wet by a sprinkler system. Fig. 6 shows the
set-up for the treatment of a headstock beam.
6.2 Bridge crossing over a canal
The bridge was constructed in 1967 over a canal in
Sydney. It is l l 0 m overall in length with eight spans of
approximately 14m each span. The structure is founded
on precast octagonal pre-tensioned piles with in-situ
concrete caps. The pile caps carry twin piers 4.88 m wide
by 460ram thick. The deck consists of pre-tensioned
inverted T-beams at 1220 mm centres, topped with in-situ
concrete.
Visual investigation was carried out at high tide and
low tide. Nearly all piers had suffered some damage from
spalling or cracking (Figs 7 and 8). The piers were
generously coated with barnacles in the tidal zone.
Electropotential measurements were taken over the
faces of some pier s, using a copper-copper sulphate half-
cell. Typical voltages from bottom to top of some piers
were as in Table 5. Once a potential of 200mV has been
reached, reinforcement corrosion will proceed.
Chloride contents at various depths were obtained
from core samples. Typical chloride contents at various
 306 1 0 4 - D C C D a m a g e classification o f c o n c r e t e s t r u c t u r e s

Fig. 7 Wide crack and rust spot at corner of pier, indicating Fig. 9 Arrangement for chloride extraction.
corroding reinforcement.
Cracks are evident right round the patching, indicating
that there is inadequate bonding between the interface of
the oId concrete and the patching material. Patching has
resulted in the removal of unsound concrete beyond the
reinforcement. This means that in most cases, one part of
the reinforcement is in the old concrete and the other part
in the patch material. This accelerates corrosion as there is
a difference in alkalinity between the old and the new
materials.
Chloride extraction was used as a trial method for
repair. The diagrammatic layout of the chloride extrac-
tion treatment for the pier is shown in Fig. 9. The
electrode net (F81 fabric), acting as a sacrificed anode, was
connected electrically to the reinforcement by either
drilling or welding a wire or a bar to the reinforcement.
The electrode net was sprayed with shredded newspaper
Fig. 8 Corner spalling in the splash zone.
mixed with soda ash with water as electrolyte. The pH of
the concrete surrounding the reinforcement was very low.
Table 5 Electropotential measurements on bridge piers Due to the large difference, the chloride ions were
attracted towards the concrete surface, where they passed
Height above pile cap (m) Corrosion potential (mV)
into the gel coating towards the electrode net. The p H or
chloride content removed from the concrete substrate
1.0 480
could be measured during the treatment by taking
1'5 580
2.0 150 samples of the gel coating. Fig. 10 shows the leaching of
2.5 70 rust occurring from the electrode net acting as the
3.0 0 sacrificial anode during treatment.

6.3 Concrete wharf

depths expressed as a percentage of the cement content of
the concrete were as in Table 6. It is generally accepted
that 0.4% of chloride by weight of cement is the level
required to overcome the passivating effect on the
reinforcement of the hydroxide ions in the concrete. The
results indicate chloride levels well in excess, constituting
the major contributor to reinforcement corrosion.
Patchwork was undertaken on the structure prior to
1986. Extensive scaling has developed on the patchwork.
The wharf is 9 4 m long x 5rn wide and consists of a
335 m m thick concrete deck. The deck is a 200 m m thick
precast reinforced concrete slab composite with a 135 m m
thick continuous in-situ concrete topping, and is sup-
ported on pile trestle piers comprisihg concrete cross-
head beams on steel piles driven to rock. The structure is
located on the south-east coast of Australia and was
constructed during 1970-1972. The environment is within

Table 6 Chloride content of concrete core samples

Depth (ram) 0-25 25-50 50-75 75-100 100-125 125-150

Chloride content (%) 0.2-5.8 0-4.3 0-2.7 0-1.3 0.3-0.9 0.74-1.2
 M a t e r i a l s a n d Structures
Fig. 10 Leaching of rust occurring from electrode net.
climatic conditions that are typically warm and dry in
summer to cool and wet in winter.
The visual survey revealed damage including rust
staining, cracking and spalling to cross-head beams and
extensive delamination of the soffit cover concrete to the
precast slab. An electropotential survey of several
members indicated that the embedded steel was corros-
ively active. The concrete resistivity was extremely low
(less than 5000 ohm-era in most cases), indicating that
corrosion would be expected to propagate at a rapid rate.
Chloride contents were extremely high (in excess of I%)
beyond the rebar level. The high sorptivity of the concrete
indicates that the cover zone of concrete was highly
susceptible to the ingress of water-borne salts and
moisture.
RESUME
D~t~rioration des constructions en b&on en milieu marin
On e x a m h w d(ff~rentes d~t&'iorations de constructions en
bbton en milieu marin. On insiste n o t a m m e n t sur la
307
Cathodic protection was chosen as the repair method
for the following reasons.
(i) Chloride contamination was extensive. Patching
would have required extensive breaking-out of defective
concrete and would have been difficult and expensive
work. With chloride-contaminated concrete remaining
adjacent to the repaired area, it would be difficult to
guarantee the future integrity of the repairs beyond five
years due to incipient anode effects.
(ii) Since c h l o r i d e c o n t a m i n a t i o n extended to a
considerable depth behind the outer reinforcement,
chloride extraction may not be efficient for the removal of
chlorides.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The author would like to thank the Public Works
Department and the Department of Main Roads, N S W
and the Directors of Taywood Engineering Ltd for
providing the information contained in this report.
REFERENCES
1. Lauer, K. R., 'Classification of damage caused by chemical
attack', Report, 2nd RILEM TC104-DCC Meeting,
September 1988, Poland.
2. Guirguis, S., 'Durable concrete structures', TN57 (Cement
and Concrete Association of Australia, 1989).
3. Bensted, J., "Chemical consideration of sulphate attack',
Worm Cement Tectmol. (May 1981 178-184.
4. Standard Association of Australia, 'Concrete structure',
AS3600-1988.
conception de la durabilitO des constructions en bbton selon
la norme australienne AS3600. Trois cas sont ktucti~s afin
de mettre en evidence les d.iff~rents types de d~tOrioration
des constructions e x p o s & s ?z un milieu marin et on envisage
dans chaque cas les solutions pour y rembdier.