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Structural Steel Engineering Basic Concepts
Structural Steel Engineering Basic Concepts
Basic Conceptes
Statics
• Applied Forces – All external forces that act on a structure or member
• Center of Gravity – A point of balance where the tendency of forces to rotate one
side of an object are countered by equal and opposite forces located on the other
side of the object
• Center of Mass – In an object or system of objects in motion, the center of mass
is one point that moves in the same path that a particle would if subjected to the
same net force
• Centroid – The center of gravity for a two-dimensional shape
• Collinear Forces – Forces that act along the same line of action
• Component of a Force - Two or more forces that compose a single force
• Composite Shapes – Refers to a combination of 2 or more built up shapes
• Concurrent Forces - Forces that pass through the same point or intersect at a
common point
• Coplanar Forces - Forces that act along lines that lie in the same plane
• Couple – The effect produced from two forces that have the same magnitude,
parallel line of action and opposite sense
• Elastic Deformation - Temporary deformation of a material where the material
subjected to a load or force returns to its original dimensions once the load or
force is removed
• External Force - The applied forces that cause an object to translate, rotate or
stay at rest
• Elastic Range – Range on the stress/strain curve in which a material will return to
its original state once the stress is removed
• Fixed Support - A fixed support resists translation and rotation of a member at the
connection point The reactions of a fixed support compose three unknown
forces, including both a vertical and a horizontal component and a resisting
moment.
• Force - The action of one object exerted on another
• Free Body Diagram - A simplified and conceptual diagram that isolates a
structural member under investigation from the rest of the structure
• Internal Force – Forces that are developed within an object in response to the
external loads
• Modulus of Elasticity - The ratio of the stress inflicted on an element to the strain
that is produced
• Moment - The tendency to make an object or a point rotate
• Moment Arm - The perpendicular distance between the line of the action of the
force and the point
• Moment of Inertia – A mathematical concept that incorporates the effect of cross
sectional shape and orientation to study the strength of a structural member
• Non-Collinear Forces – Two or more forces that act along different lines of action
• Non-Concurrent Forces - Forces that do not pass the same point or do not
intersect. Parallel forces are an example of non-concurrent forces.
• Non-Coplanar Forces - Forces that do not lie in the same plane and have a have a
three dimensional arrangement
• Parallel Axis Theorem – A mathematical method by which the moment of inertia of
a shape with respect to its centroidal axis can be transferred to a prescribed
parallel axis that is normally the centroidal axis of the composite shape
• Pinned/Hinged Support – A pin or a hinge support resists translation of a member
in both horizontal and vertical directions. The reactions of a pin support represent
two unknown force components
• Plastic Deformation - Deformation that remains permanent in a material subjected
to load or force and remains in place even after the load or force is removed
• Plastic Range – Range on the stress/strain curve where a material permanently
deforms once stress is removed
• Radius of Gyration – Defined as the square root of the moment of inertia divided
by the cross sectional area of the shape; a shape factor that measures the
resistance to bending about a defined axis
• Reaction Forces - Equal and opposing forces that resist applies forces
• Resultant of a Force – A single force that replaces a system of concurrent forces
• Roller Support – A roller support resists translation of a member in the
perpendicular direction to the contact surface. This reaction of a roller connection
represents one unknown force component.
• Static Equilibrium – The state when the net effect of all the forces acting on an
object equal zero
• Statics – One of three branches of mechanics that deals with the study of forces
that are in a state of balance
• Stiffness – Measure of a material’s rigidity; a material’s ability to withstand
deformations under stress; slope of the stress/strain curve
• Strain – Deformation of the physical dimensions of an object subjected to a stress
• Stress – Describes the intensity of a force and is expressed by the amount of
force acting per unit of area
• Transmissibility of Forces – Law that states that the point of application of an
external force acting on a body can be moved anywhere along the line of action of
the force without creating a change in the overall external forces applied on the
body
• Ultimate Strength – The maximum force that can be applied to a material without
breaking the material
• Yield Stress – The point at which stress causes a material to permanently deform
Beams
• Beam Deflection – The deviation of a beam from its original position due to
applied loading
• Bearing Stresses – Forces that exist when forces are transferred from one
member to another
• Bending – Deformation of a horizontal structural member that is a result of the
application of external loads
• Bending Stresses – Stresses that are produced in a structural member’s cross -
section when subjected to bending. Compressive stresses are generated at
concave fibers and tensile stresses are generated at convex fibers.
• Cantilever Beams – Beams that are fixed or anchored at one end and free at the
other end
• Center of Gravity – A point of balance where the tendency of forces to rotate one
side of an object are countered by equal and opposite forces located at the other
side of the object; the resultant force of the earth’s gravitational forces acting on
individual particles composing an object
• Centroid – The center of gravity for the area of a two dimensional shape
• Centroidal Axis – Also called the neutral axis; a line that passes through the
centroid of a beam’s cross- section where beam fibers are neither shortened
under compression or elongated under tension
• Compression Forces – Forces that tend to crush or buckle an element; forces act
inwardly on an object
• Concentrated Loads – Loads that act on a single or concentrated point of a
structural member
• Continuous Beams – Beams that span over more than two supports
• Equations of Static Equilibrium – Equations used to determine unknown reactions
that assume all forces and moments in all directions sum to zero
• External Forces – Forces applied to a structure
• Fixed End Beams – A beam that is restrained from any movement or rotation at
both of its two end supports
• Fixed Support – A support condition that does not permit translation or rotation
and thus develops three unknown reactions, including a vertical and horizontal
component and a resisting moment
• Fixed-Pinned Beams – A beam that is fixed at one end and pinned at the other end
• Free Body Diagram - A simplified and conceptual diagram that isolates a
structural member under investigation from the rest of the structure
• Horizontal Shear Force – Equal and opposite forces that are generated in adjacent
horizontal fibers of a structural member in response to applied loads
• Horizontal Shear Stress – Stresses produced by the movement of the adjacent
fibers of a member in the horizontal direction due to opposing and equal forces
• Internal Forces – Forces that occur within a structural member
• Internal Resisting Moment – Moment generated from tension and compression
forces in a beam cross section that counterbalance the external moment
produced by the applied loads
• Lateral Buckling – Buckling in the horizontal direction
• Neutral Axis (see centroidal axis)
• Open Web Joist - A steel truss that is used and spaced like a joist to support floor
or roof decking
• Overhanging Beams – A simply supported beam that has one or both of its ends
extending beyond the supports
• Pin/Hinge Support – A support condition that that can resist a single force in any
direction on the plane containing and thus develops two unknown force
components
• Principle of Superposition – Method that consists of finding the effect of several
loading conditions acting on a beam simultaneously by determining the effect of
each individual load on the beam separately
• Resisting Moment – A moment generated by tension and compression forces in
the cross section of a structural member that counterbalances the external
moment produced by the applied loads
• Roller Support – A support condition that develops a reaction force perpendicular
to the point of contact, thus restricting movement in that direction
• Shear – A force that is the result of opposing forces that cause the sliding of one
portion of a structural member along an adjacent portion
• Shear and Moment Diagram – Graphical diagrams that determine the intensity of
shear force and bending moment at any point along a structural member
• Simply Supported Beams – A beam in which one end is connected by a hinge and
the other end is connected by a roller
• Statically Determinate Beams – Beams that allow the application of the basic
equations of static equilibrium to determine up to three unknown reactions
• Statically Indeterminate Beams – A beam that contains more than three unknown
reactions and thus does not permit the use of the static equations of equilibrium
• Tension Forces – Forces that tend to pull an element apart
• Torsion – A twisting effect on an object
• Tributary Area – The portion of an area load that is carried by each beam in a
frame
• Uniformly Distributed Loads – An evenly distributed load that is applied over an
area
• Uniformly Increasing Loads – Loads that are applied over a given area that
gradually increase over or at certain portions of the structure
• Vertical Shear Force – Equal and opposite forces that are generated in adjacent
vertical fibers of a structural member in response to applied loads
• Vertical Shear Stress – Stress produced by the movement of the adjacent fibers of
a member in the vertical direction due to opposing and equal forces resulted from
the external loading
• Wide Flange – A rolled steel section in the shape of an I
Cables
• Cables – Flexible structural elements often made of steel, polypropylene, nylon, or
fiberglass that carry tensile loads
• Cable Net Systems – A category of cable systems that includes cable-stayed systems and
double cable systems; refers to a system of cables designed to resist lateral loads
• Cable Stayed Systems – A structure in which a series of linear cables directly support
rigid horizontal members and masts under all anticipated loading conditions
• Cold Stretching – a process that produces high strength steel
• Double Cable Systems – A cable system that contains a linear main cable carrying the
gravity load that is stiffened by secondary cables
• Parabolic Cables – A cable that is subjected to a uniformly distributed load
• Single Bolt Clam – A connection used for joining cables in a net
• Strand – A composition of a number of wires that are helically formed around a central
wire
• Two Force Member - A structural member that is hinged or pinned at each end and does
not carry any loads between the ends
• U-Bolts – A connection used for joining cables in a net
Arches
• Arch – a structural element that carries loads by developing compressive forces
• Axial Thrust
• Counter-Front Walls
• Fixed Ended Arches – Arches that have fixed end connections
• Flying Buttress – an external bracing system that resists the effect of outward thrust
• Ideal Arch – An arch that carries loads by compression only and cannot resist any lateral
forces
• Shear Force
• Statically Determinate Arches – Arches with three or less number of reactions
• Statically Indeterminate Arches – Arches with greater than three reactions, including both
two-hinged and fixed arches
• Struts
• Three Hinged Arch – An arch with three hinge connections
• Tied Arch – An arch that resists outward thrust by tying the two supports below the floor
level
• Two-Hinged Arch (Parabolic Arch) – An arch with two hinges at the supports that transfers
the axial thrust and the shear force as horizontal and vertical forces to the foundation
Surface Structures
• Surface Structures – non linear rigid or soft structural elements that are continuous in two
axes
• Fabric Structure – a soft surface spanning structure that can only resist tensile forces
• Slab – a monolithic surface spanning structure usually made of concrete that carry loads
by bending
• One-Way Slab – a reinforced concrete plate that is supported at two opposite edges and
that carries loads by bending in one direction only
• Two-Way Slab – a reinforced concrete plate that is supported at four corners and that
carries loads in two directions perpendicular to each other
• Flat Plates – a category of reinforced concrete two-way slabs that are reinforced in two
directions and transfer loads directly to vertical supporting elements without using beams
or girders
• Folded Plates – a type of two-way slab that is folded or corrugated thus providing stiffness
and a high moment of inertia
• Shells – thin, lightweight, curved structures that resist axial and shear forces
• Cylindrical Shells – a shell structure that is extended in the longitudinal direction
• Shell Dome – an arch that is revolved about its vertical axis forming a hemispherical shell
• Hyper-bolic Paraboloids – a structure that is composed of a double contour curved plane
that can carry surface tension, compression, and shear stress
• Tension Structures – structures that are composed of light weight materials such as
cables and fabrics
• Cable Nets – a type of tension structure that is composed of cable segments that are
connected to form a three dimensional framework
• Fabric Structure – a tensile structure where fabric is curved and stretched between
supporting elements to provide a continuous surface for the flow of tension forces
• Air Supported Structures – a tensile structure that uses air pressure to support and
stabilize fabric or other membranes
• Basic Concepts
• The basic concepts section contains terms that are fundamental in understanding statics,
strength of materials, and structural behavior. Many of the terms and definitions include
images, animations, and tabulated information to communicate the concepts.
• Forces
• Force Systems
• Support Conditions
• Cross-Sectional properties of areas
• Moment and Couples
• Forces
Components of a a single force can be replaced by two or more forces that produce the
Force same effect. These forces are called components of the force.
Resultant of a single force that replaces a32.- system of concurrent forces is called a
-
Forces resultant force
law that states that the point of application of an external force acting
Transmissibility of on a body can be moved anywhere along the line of action of the force
-
Forces without creating a change in the overall external forces applied on the
body
Reaction Forces equal and opposing forces that resist applies forces
the state when the net effect of all the forces acting on an object equal
Static Equilibrium
zero
Free Body a simplified and conceptual diagram that isolates a structural member
Diagram under investigation from the rest of the structure
Concurrent
forces that pass through the same point or intersect at a common point
Forces
Non-Concurrent forces that do not pass the same point or do not intersect. Parallel forces
Forces are an example of non-concurrent forces
Collinear Forces forces that act along the same line of action
Non-Collinear
two or more forces that act along different lines of action.
Forces
Support Conditions
Free-Body
Type Description Image
Diagram
Type Description
Center of a point of balance where the tendency of forces to rotate one side of an object are
Gravity countered by equal and opposite forces located on the other side of the object
Composite refers to a combination of 2 or more structural shapes that compose a structural member’s
Shapes cross section
Moment of a mathematical concept that incorporates the effect of cross sectional shape and
Inertia orientation to study the strength of a structural member
a mathematical method by which the moment of inertia of a shape with respect to its
Parallel Axis
centroidal axis can be transferred to a prescribed parallel axis which is normally the
Theorem
centroidal axis of the composite shape
Radius of defined as the square root of the moment of inertia divided by the cross sectional area of
Gyration the shape; a shape factor that measures the resistance to bending about a defined axis
Moment the perpendicular distance between the line of the action of the force and the
Arm point about which the moment is produced.
Moment
Moment Arm
Couples
Structural Loads and Structural Behavior
Structural loads are defined as forces that tend to produce deformation in a structure. This
section includes concepts dealing with the classification and analysis of loads and how
structures withstand the effect of the applied loads with safety and adequacy.
• Load Types
• Load Distribution Categories
• Structural Behavior under Loads
Load Types
Loads Description Table
Gravity Load Loads that are the result of the earth’s gravitational pull -
Occupancy Gravity live loads that consist of the weight of people, furniture, equipment, and
Load stored materials.
Live load produced in Earthquakes that result from the slippage of rock plates
Seismic Load -
along the fault line
Lateral Load Loading that occurs in the horizontal direction with respect to the ground -
Load Distribution Categories
Description Image
Uniformly Increasing
A load that is increased at a constant rate
Load
Uniformly Distributed Loading that occurs along a portion or the length of a structural
Load member
Description Animations
Animation/
Type Description
Image
Compression
a force that pushes the fibers of a material closer to each other
Force
Stress
the accumulation of stress on a small section or area of an object ---
Concentration
a force that pulls or stretches the fibers of a material away from each
Tension Force
other
Thermal Strain the change in material dimensions as a result of temperature changes ---
Thermal Stress the expansion and contraction of a material due to thermal change ---
Law named after Robert Hook in 1678 that describes the stress-
Hook’s Law strain relationship in elastic materials is linear and proportional
under moderate loading.
Modulus of Elasticity The ratio of the stress inflicted on an element to the strain that is
(Young’s Modulus) produced
• Connection Types
• Connection Type Matrix
• Wood Connections
• Steel and Concrete Connections
Connection Types
Simple (Shear) a type of structural joinery that resists shear forces but does not
Connection resist bending moments
Rigid (Moment) a type of structural joinery that resists both shear forces and
Connection bending moments
Connection Types
Type Wood Steel Concrete
Simple
Common Bolts
structural steel bolts composed of low carbon steel that have a
(Unfinished Bolts, ASTM -
smaller load capacity than high strength bolts
A307)
Twist Off/Tension a type of high strength bolt that releases the splined extension
Controlled Bolts of the bolt when the optimum amount of torque is applied
Animation/
Type Description
Image
Building the form, geometry, scale, arrangement of the building mass and
Configuration structure
Cross Bracing bracing used in frames that resist lateral forces in two or more
directions
Earthquake lateral forces caused by the shifting of plates below the earth’s
(Seismic) Forces surface that act mostly at the base of a structure
Re-Entrant
differential stiffness in a structure caused by irregular geometries
Corners
Foundation
the interface of a building structure with the ground
Shallow a type of foundation that is used when the earth directly beneath a structure has sufficient
Foundation bearing capacity to sustain the loads from the structure
Deep Foundation a type of foundation that is used when the soil near the ground surface is weak
Shallow Foundations
Type Description Images
a type of foundation wall that consists of a stem and a base slab that is held
Cantilever
in equilibrium by self-weight, horizontal soil pressure, and the reaction of
Wall
the base structure acting upward
Mat/Raft a large slab foundation that is used instead of multiple spread footings
Foundation
the most widely used type of shallow foundation that is designed to receive
Spread Footing the concentrated loads directly on the centroid to prevent unequal pressure
distribution and overturning of the footing
an extended footing used under foundation walls; strip footings are used in
Strip Footing
basements, crawlspaces, and for slabs-on grade.
elongated spread footings that transfer loads from load bearing walls. Wall
Wall Footing
footings are used in substructures such as slabs-on-grade, crawlspaces and
basements.
Deep Foundations
Type Description Images
Battered
an inclined pile that is used that can resist lateral forces as well as vertical
Piles forces
Bearing
a type of pile that is used to resist lateral loads and uplift forces
Piles
Caissons a type of deep foundation that is achieved by casting concrete into drilled holes
a type of pile that resists loads by friction and transfers loads to the
Friction
surrounding soil using the adhesive resistance between the pile surface and its
Piles
surrounding soil
Pile -
a long and slender deep foundation that is driven pushed into the ground
Retaining Walls
Type Description Images
Crib Wall a retaining wall used for outdoor earthworks and landscaping
Foundation a structural element that is constructed below grade to support the earth
Wall and resist water pressure
foundation wall that relies on its own weight to resist overturning forces
Gravity Wall
from soil and water pressure
Key extrusion on the base of a cantilevered retaining wall that prevents sliding
Sheeting temporary walls that hold back the soil during excavation
Soldier
a type of sheeting that uses vertical piles tied together by lagging
Beams
Stem portion of foundation wall that extends or cantilevers into the soil