THE DEFINITION OF EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY AECT Task Force ‘0n Definition and Terminology Published by Association for Educational Communications nd Technology 1126 V6th Street, N.W Washington, 0. 20036, Ccopyiene 1977 -Awociton for Educational Communications and Technology2 it, a8 Geouge Geter ht 50 often pointe out, Semot the same thing 384 diciptine in the wo ofthe Inlet The ainsi itd, He any oer elds Inching pubic sdminntatinn, embrace potions of “nce, sls, and procedures fom 4 name 9f 3c ‘mie dcipings and a0 fom oe applied elds nd wel them ino new appietons, In ths proces, cher ‘emenisnouabiy, the beBinnings of one or mare new ‘isplines and a yeat deal of art-ae created. Ths, ‘ul engineering more than the stengh of materials more than theevies of molar resonance; though i run se thse, itu an erate ements af sown if Feat bridges of sting beauty te to Be made Io e038 al Inthe academic dscitnes-chomisiy, terry cits, oF urban sociolony-detiniion and termina ‘ony iu fc enough problem, Thee das 2c ‘demic dciplnes are in a reat seule to Become sciences with physics a6 the mode. Without comment ing on the posible inavisaiey of this drive by 3 isle of nowledge to emote 3 system for study of the physi! universe, the fat sl remains that In any Science an agiad-ypon universe of discourse 3 the fine v0 on. The ideal science academic dsciline Iecene in which all workers understand prfety a of the terme in the spec lnguate of the scence oF ‘citing -a language in which all neophytes or appren ties mut be induced um they, too, reach al under Sanding. Brcive models crested of the ret word rarely, Hever precily resemble that wold, even the most reaches of the “hardest” scieners Rave never teal atsined this eal of a ttl aredhopon on terse of discourse “The problem of an apple fed wih reference to esiniuan and terminology 6 initely more det ‘han dhe same problem in a watt and rece disc Irany sourees for iy untenance thatthe problem of {esnivon ad terminology compounded many Us {ithe bionhysieste do not totally ape i th eld, Senat about the pubic heath people who mast apy findings fom varied dines Forte, ican te argued that an apie Fel i ect tothe wing of change that may mount to hurriane fovce and sped, The explosion of knowledge aus the rvtemest cise to change with feat rapidity. A Frum profession making Use of Severe! dines thus fas tole with nlpying change "ae boutom, the proble i een more complicated Woites om scence and even eminent cents m recent ars have erated and maintained a myth hat ees Fe fo one reais between 2 cence and amy lied eld depending upon that scence. That, “htt advance new thetes o discover ew fats oF ‘roceses aout some aapet ofthe wld, and engines. then apy these tore, als of prowees ee Fred down In education, for example, Dee tk nt the cence of earning ai heat of teaching oF ‘he ecology af instction. Wis tie tht in the st 0 years, 35 the insta revlation has ven way to the sient revelation, me the increasingly teed Upon the sient dconerer nd understand and upon the practioner as et ner without change eesti. Thi rlaionsip, Fowever sl a from one to oe. The practitioner tye he doctor, engineer, pie administrator, oF aio wl dietorill aide mach to the evolutionary proves: Cal i invention, tchnology, a of 2 ite of {The profesional who has to do something in this world fortier complates the problem of lange, Uetiion, and ermincony beease he ads terms, ences an Hess fo tho sletes om the support Ing dsciptines (op. [AECT's Task Force on Definition and Terminology has the responsibilty forgiving both structure and sense co the applica tion of technology to education. Applying technology necessar- ily afects all pats of the educational enterprise. Finn recogni {6 the scope of this impact: Ie follows, then, tat definion and terminology a the expanded nuda llinstrctonal tech (gy, if you wil of eri importance to the educational community 48a whole. Does the school superin tendent, for example, know what the language labor tony that he has us asked or bids on ely 8? Does ne he program iis television seme ots facing Chie ot computer sense? (pv) How docs instructional design relate to instructional develop: iment and how do both relate to curriculum planning? Do sur ‘mative and formative evaluation differ in respect to time oF procedures or both? The need for standard terms and defini tions has expanded—not diminished-in past years. ‘This definition is not offered casually. It has been 14 yeas in the making ICs the product of people~practitioners in educa tional technology. Recognizing what is encompassed within the field of educational technology, they represent and have drawn {rom a wide range of educational specialties, AS 2 product of people at 2 point in time, the definitions and technology will ‘change and evolve as time goes on, Such changes are welcomed, not discouraged. AECT's Task Force on Definition and Term. ology encourages those involved in any phase of educational technology to make themselves heard, to offer comments and ideas, to contebute to an ongoing revision process. Future editions can only be strengthened by the collective input of You, the practitioners in educational technology. Tomorrow is Yyou"-becomeit Rochester, New York Clint Wallington January 3, 1977 THE DEFINITION OF EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGYCHAPTER | The Definition of Educational Technology: A Surnmary A concept as complex 38 educational technology requires an equally complex definition. The following definition all 16 parts-are meant to be taken 35 whole; none alone constitutes an adequate definition of educational technology 1. Educationo! technotogy is 2 complex, integrated process involving people, procedures, ideas, devices, and ofganization, for analyzing problems and devising, implementing, evaluating. and managing solutions to those problems, involved in al as beets of human learning. In educational technology, the sol tions to. problems take the form of al the Learning Resources that are designed andfor selected andjor utilized to bring about learning: these resources are identified a= Messages, People, Materials, Devices, Techniques, and Settings. The processes for analyzing problems, and devising, implementing and evaluating Solutions ate identified by the Educational Development Func: tions of Research Theory, Design, Production, Evaluation Se lection, Logisties, Utilization, and Utilization Dissemination. The processes of divecting oF coordinating one oF more of these functions are identified by the Educational Management Func ‘ions of Organization Management and Personnel Management. The relationships among these elements are shown by the Domain of Edueational Technology Mods:[ Eaucatonat | | Edveationat Management| | Development | Leaning | Fonction | | Functions Resourees Research-Theory] [Meso Desien Peope Prodiction Materials Evaluation Devices seeetion Techniques Loris seutings (Uiienon) Dissemination) Organieaton| Management Personne Figure 11 DOMAIN OF EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY ‘The definitions of the elements in the Domain of Educational ‘Technology are given in Tables 1.1, 1.2, and 13. “Educational technology is 2 theory about how problems in human leaning ae identified and solved, Educational technology is a field involved in applying a complex, integrated process to analyze and solve problems in shaman learning Educational technology is a profession made up of an or sized effort to implement the theory, intellectual technique, and practical application of educational technology, 2, Educational technology is often confused with "techno- logy im education.” Technology in education s the application of technology to any of those processes involved in operating the institutions Which house the educational enterprise. It includes the applica tion of technology to food, health, finance scheduling, grade feporting, and other processes which support education within institutions, Technology in education is not the same a5 educa tional technology. 3. Educational technology #8 often confused with “instruc tional technology.” Instructional technology isa sub-set of educational technolo: ay, based on the concept that instruction isa subset of educa tion, instructional technology is a complex, integrated process involving people, procedures, ideas, devices, and organization, for analyzing problems, and devising, implementing, evaluating and managing solutions to those problems, in situations in ‘which Jearning is purposive ond controlled. ky inseuctional technology, the solutions to problems take the form of instruc: tional System Components which ate prestructured in design or Selection, and in utilization, and are combined into complete instructional systems; these’ components are identified 3s Mes ‘sages, People, Materials, Devices, Techniques, and Settings. The processes for analyzing problems and devising, Implementing, and evaluating. solutions ate identified by the Instructional Development Functions of Research-Theoty, Design, Produc tion, EvaluationSelection, Unilization, and Utilization Dis semination, The process of directing or coordinating one or more of these functions are identified by the Instructional ‘Management Functions of Organization Management and Personnel Management. The relationships among these elements ate shown by the Domain of Instructional Technology Mode! tosinctional —[toseactionst | [ tnsractiona Management| [Development |_| Systeme Functions | |Fonctione Compenens| Jornzaon] [Resch theory] |stesage | Manasement| | Design Ublzation | ani People Materials Devies— b+elLeame Techniques DOMAIN OF INSTRUCTIONAL TECHNOLOGY“The definitions of the elements in the Domain of Instructional Technology ate given in Tables 1.1, 1.2,and 13. “Thus, all of instructional technology fits within the param ters of educational technology, while all of educational techno: logy does not fit within the parameters of instructional techno: logy. IF instructional technology is in operation, then of neces sity, so is educational technology; the reverse is not necessarily true. In educational technology, the Development and Manage tment Funetions are eore inclusive because they apply to more Learning Resources than just Instructional System Compo: rnents-they include all resources that can be used to facilitate learning 4. The definition of educational technology constitutes a “Theory because it meets the criteria of existence ofa phenom enon, explanation, summarizing, orientation, systematizing, gaP identification, generating strategies for research, prediction, and 4 principle or set of principles, 5. Educational technology has a unique Intellectual Tech pique-an approach to solving problems. Each development and ‘management funetion has an individual technique associated With it, However, the intellectual technique of educational technology is more than the sum of these parts, It involves the systematic integration ‘of the individual technologies of these funetions, and thelr interelationships, nto a comple, integra ed process to analyze whole problems and create new solutions Tt produces 4 synergistic effect, yielding outcomes not totally predictable based on the individual elements operating in isola tion, This indigenous intellectual technique is unique to educa: tional technology; no other existing feld uses it 6. Educational technology has practical applications. The existence of resources for learing, and the performance of the ‘evelopment and management functions, constitute the most basic. and explicit evidence of this practical application. In Addition, the application of educational technology affects the brganisational structure of education because: (1) it moves the impact of educational technology to the curriulum strategy (Gand pethaps determination) level; (2) i permits four types of fducationalpatterns-psople resources alone, other resources used by (and controlled by) people, people in shared respons bility with other resources (combined into educational systems using mediated instruction), other resources (mediated insteue tion) alone; (3) it makes possible the existence of alternative institutional forms for facilitating leaening, and can serve all these types of alterative institutions, These applications have significant impact on the specific processes of education: they ‘change the techniques of doing, and the people who do, content {letermination (including standardization, choice, quantity, and ‘wality), design, production, and evaluation of instruction, and interaction with, and asessment of, learners, The result leads to 2 drastic change inthe role of school systems and the individual teacher 7. Educational technology has guidelines for traning and certification. There is a competency-based framework for tain ing people who perform tasks in educational technotogy. The framework is based on groupings of tasks from various func tions within the domains. of educational and instuctional technology. The groupings reflect specialties within the field 36 well as levels of performance within the specialty acea, The Specialties are: (1) instructional pragram development, (2) media product development, and (3) media management, The thice levels of task complexity ae ade, technician, and special Ist. AECT currently has guidelines for training programs for, and certification of, techaicians and specialists in each of the thee specialty areis, and is developing procedures for the Implementation of those guidelines, 8. Educational technology has provisions for the develop ‘ment and implementation of leadership. Leadership within the profession is cated que through various leadership conferences land internship progfams. In addition, educational technology Tultls a Teadership function in the eld of education through io in joint groups, grants, and publications, 9. Educational technology has an association and profession al communications. There i atleast oie professional association divectly concerned with educational technology the Associa tion for Educational Communications and Technology. In add tion to facilitating communication among members throug itsannual convention and thiee periodic publications, it serves to develop and implement the standards and ethics, leadership, and training and certification characteristics of the profession 10. Educational techaology acknowledges itself as a profes sion thiough its professional association and the activites it performs 11, Educational technology operates within. the Target context of society. It advocates being a concerned profession Concerned about the uses to which its techniques and appl tions are being put, Further, 26 profession, it has taken stands in favor of intellectual Freedom, in favor of affirmative action, thalnst stereotyping in materials and in favor of enlisting tech ‘nology in support of humane and life-uliing ends 12, Educational technology operates within the total field of education. Init relationship to other professions also involved in the field it advocates a coequal and cooperative celationship among these professions. 13, Since the definition presented here meets ll the criteria for the existence of a theory (preceding items 1-4), educational technology isa theory about how problems in human Tearing ie identified and solved. Since the definition meets all the Criteria for the existence ofa field (preceding items 1-6), ed tional technology is 2 field involved in applying a complex, integrated process to analyze and solve problem's inhuman Ieavning. Since the definition meets all the criteria forthe ex tence of a profession (preceding items 1-12), educational tech nology is profession made up of an organized effort to im plement the theory, intellectual technique, and practical appli ation of educational technology. The definitions of educa tional technology as 2 theory, a field, and a profession, are Congrent-with each being derived diretly from the one which precedes 14, Persons are members of the field of educational tec ology if they pesform activities that fall within the Domain of Educational Technology, based on the theoretical framework ff, and employing the intellectual technique of, educational tecinooy. 15, Fenom ae membus of he pfeson of evnion tecnalogy they already met the cites fr operating within the eld spenta joy of tc ne performing ane or mote af the Domain of Educational! Technology funtion subse tothe standards and ethics ofthe proestan, and ave the al ing and cetiation equed by the profeson ae invlved In Sevcoping their owe fades site, ste mens ofthe sssoation and paripate ih is communications tug ea ing it ournals and attending te mesg: aclnoedge thew ‘chs ap memes of the profession; are coneredprfeson alsoxamining the end to which tel sls are pot aa accept ing thowe vas st forth bythe profession; and rat to eer profesional ona ceil and cooperative bass. These people may be called “educational techncogs” 16. "The concept of instructional or educational tech ational technology is totally integrative. 1t provides 2 common ground for all professionals, no. matter in what aspect of the field they are ‘working. Tt permits the rational development and integration of new devices, materials, and methods as they come along. The concept isso completely viable that it will ot only provide new status for our group, but wil, for the Fist time, dhveaten the stausof others (Finn, 1965 9.193) “The educational future will belong to those wh wo can gasp the significance of [educational and] instructional technology” (Finn, 19648, p. 26),Table 1 Learning Resources/Instructional System Components Learning Resources {for Educational Technology)-all of the tesources (data, people, 3d things) which may be used by the leamer in folation of in combination, usally in an informal manner, t0 facilitate learing; they include Messages, People, Materials, Devices, Techniques, and Settings. There are two types: (a) resources by design—those resources which have been speciticlly developed as “instructional system components” in ‘order t0 facilitate purposive, formal learning, and (b) resources by utilization those resources which have not specifically been designed for instruction bit which can be discovered, applied, land used for leaaing purposes. Instructional System Components (1SC) (or lnstructional ‘Technology)—those learning resources which are prestructured in design or selection and utilization, and combined into Complete instructional systems, to bring about purposive and ‘controlled leaning, Examples ‘any subject mateo fem egy the Hoy of te rei his a Weld Series resus the Nesage | Infomation tobe tans ited bythe oer com onan takes the form tides, 5, meaning, owcrmentConugation St he wero "to Be” Peep Peron who ate ating to | Teacher; student; acto storeanaorwanseit | speaker | Mowsiat | tome (vaonlly cat | Oveead trariareney fd media or sotwate) | sls; fisrp, 16nm Shick wsualy store Mes: | motion pitwre; 8mm {ges for ransmson by | motion pict ‘eves sometimes sl ‘deo "ape record audiotape; stpiaving programed instruction materi compter sited iatretion ro ‘Bam; book journal Doce Items (adtonally ell | Overhead projector ie cthardvare) whieh trait Messge stored jetor 1m fl Technique | Routine procedures or procast mold for sing Materia, Devices, Set sigs, and People tranant Mesage. which te Menage ne Feet im fl proj: elon ecard players ead ower il ace infor chine king yet omputer output devices Compurrasssted_in struction; propamed to | gaming; discovery inau- Fy Fea wp; team each Ing; lndidualaed struction; selfistae feet dacusien, Pry soa bling Instructors! mates, Eneironmental: ihn: | | nating acaiTable 1.2 Educational/instructional Development Functions Funetions which have as their purpose analyzing problems, and devising, implementing, ad evaluating the Learning Resources} Instructional System Components solutions to these problems, a owed (teary and research methodology) rested to the fonctions, {earing Resources and Insnactinal System Components and fear Foon i | Rowe Maps: [Yo gate and et | To conepualie Boo sei model, To conduct research pro- Toanalyre reeteh 0. Osteo: ‘Ast Knowledge whi can act, san input ote ther Seeking information reading analyzing Sahai it, testing i, alyzng test ut “Totranate genta theo rete knowledge nto ‘pccfeation for Lea tonal System Compo To generate new ies To tet vay of mod To test hypotiess. Reads propos Compares mode ih Known dt, Formulates specie hy othe. To design prowramed in socton materia To develop instructor odes for india Tedinstuction To design equipment edcatonaltrctinal Development Functions Outcome Specifications for pro ocion of Learning Re System Componente ress of format or Examples To write general objec the To determine median, To describe. techie Production Anaivaing, synths ng ar writing abe: ive, earner characte ss, ask analyses, srvetonal events, spe ations for Lerning Rescues and Insti ional Systems Com To wansate speditce tins for Leaning Re Systems Components nto specie acta tes, Aalyzes_ objectives, Srrihesies objectives Sequenceeontet) mea. Arranges materials in| To produce aster To direct movon pit sams for computer Outcome i Specie products ia the duced versions, Operating production supers, raving ay ingot, wing bung To ake sides into txt To edie on muse! sound eet. Mixes narration tape and sound Opeats motion pteFedcationtAnsrutionst Development Functions ational suctionat Development Functions Fnetion Definition ‘Selection Purpose {cul produeed Leaning tinal system Compo enti terms of eters SE'by anertonetions nd to develop modes To pilot test prototype ruta raters Fo preview and let Instructional materi. To deeop evaluation model and techies. a) Evaluation for Desi ilectivenes of Leaning System component in esting he bjetvs, fo) Evaluation fo Prod ction: aceptbity of ite in meting ro tion stands (6) Evaluation for Evan tion erlvation mode. (a) Evan for Sle tion: aeeptblty oF items fr seqiton for specie purpose. {c} Evaiton for Uti on: aeeptabiiy oF Ingobjecties in atl Todentity problems vith mater. Toidentty objectives, Tons sezeptble sound eu. Acti Ansys posite uss of Function Defton Examples Logisties Purpose: | Tornuke Lanning Re_| To have equipment reaty fources and Inston | “as nese A'Sysem Components | To pone delivery Bait for other tune | serie ons ‘Tociiog mates outcome: — | Ordered, stored, eewieved, | To zossndex materia. sited catalogue, a" | Totocate mae for Sem schedaled, di | “deer. tributed operate, man | To keep repair history. tured andvepated | To rep fst eo Leaning Resorcesand | eto, lestrctonal Systeme Components. ‘xcvty: | Ordering, storing etre. | Threads movie praetor. ing, clasiving cataloging, | Assigns media code fom sevembling sedi, | Ist Gerbuting operating, | Pans new seedling earning Resources sh Insrvetiona System Components Purpow: | Tobsinglearnerinto | To help student we contact with Leming | Teaming acti. RRoourcesand isu | To monitor Indies tional System Compo. | ed ands isrution ent Tohelp student select Tesning acti and | _temeat abject, Outcome: | Facilitation and aves | To analyze student eam rent of sent ea ingste. ‘To encourage interestEuationlnstactioal Devlopment Functions Feetion Definition Activity: | Assigning renting tenner or, reseting sting nd following Sp ening Ress Component; tesing Duss with student Compares earning acti csi aig sy Compares pre-and pos Disemination Parpow | (Aspect subfuntion | To cost on materia of Uiliation) To bing ‘nth information about ‘tocatinal ccncloy. Disemination of itor ration about education 1 technolo ‘Activity: | Taking in and prog out Information about educational technoley Mein a we Tovteschphotonaphy Toexplin inavduaized Tolneene we of lea ing resources center Yo provide modes for ‘dering niacin. To improve use of med ned iran by teacher Toraner questions bout induied To demorsiate poke Toexphinteaning ete eng tle, imide. Iowan able 1.3 Educational/insructional Management Functions Functions which have as their puepose the dtectig ot control ling of one oF more of the Educationaljinstructional Develop ‘ment Functions of of other Educational/insteuctional Manage ‘ment Functions to ensure their effective operation. Function Detnton Examples Organ tion an. Purpete: | To determine, modty or | To adsinier fire pro outcome exceute the objects, hosophy, poly, sue te, bot intra! and crn eating, Ind sdninstrative pro. dues of neni {ion performing one oF seve of the Develop ment functions or the Management fnctions Poy, budget, plans, co dined sete, 9 iet whieh cludes wo To monitor and change | operation of centr To provide weretarial Series ina aio. To prepare budget To identiy organization reed. To seein fobs tobe ove Acti Defining, wing, and leading the ocores Revins purchase orders ‘ona mode. Aalyzes protien inEducatonatnste Personne Marae Purpose To interact with andlor to supers the people tho perform aetives nine tunetion, Inseperionl interaction, fmpoyment, hd Pe sonal development onal Management Futons Examples To supers peso in rani ui. Tov improve corsmuni Fost roiets To evaluate work pe formes. To encourage dscusion To serie the rep iscsi with ane ‘peaking to oter people Neots with person ret department. Questions applica Talks with new emo CHAPTER II Educational Technology: Theoretical Construct Field, Profession When we think of educational technology, we can think of it in thece different ways-as 2 theoretical construct, as 2 field, and a a profession, Consequently, when we define educational technology, we can define it in these same three different way Before stating a definition, then, it fs prudent to analyze cach of these ways of looking at educational technology, t0 decide which we are to define, and to set forth eitria by which ‘we ean evaluate whether our definition actually defines educa: tional technology inthe desired ways, ‘THREE PERSPECTIVES OF EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY The fist way we can think of educational technology i 8 theoretical comstruct-an abstraction which includes sets of ideas and principles about how education and instruction should be carried out through the use of technology. ‘Second, we can think of educational technology as field of ‘endeavor- the application of the theoretical ideas and principles to solve actual problems in education and instetion, The field imeludes the techniques used, the activities performed, the Infor= mation and resources used, and the clients served by practtion- Crsin the ilaThird, we can think of educational technology as a profes sion-a special group of practitioners who are organized, who ‘meet certain criteria, who have certain duties, and who combine ta structure a particular patt ofthe fel None of the foregoing perspectives is more corrector better than the others. Each i different way of thinking about the same thing. Different people have different perspectives and individuals’ perspectives may change, depending upon what they “do” in relation to-educational technology. DEFINING EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY Which of these three perspectives of educational technology should be used asthe basis for the definition? “Thinking of educational technology a a theoretical construct provides the most substandal basis for a definition. We can Consider it in the abstract, analyzing, identifying, and dining its elements and intertelationships, then synthesizing them into 4 cohesive entity. Such a definition would be the most clear and ‘comprehensive definition which could be generated Most people, however, think of educational technology as a fiold, nd identify it mot by its theory but rather by those tangible elements they can observe. Those who work t0 apply educational technology generally relate it t0 the jobs and the activities they perform daily. To them itis not a theory but an tmtty in which they exist. A definition of the field of educa tional technology wold most closely fit the perceptions of those who work within it ‘A still smaller graup of people think of educational technolo: fy 38 a profession, and identify it by the special criteria for Professions. While these people are concerned with the jobs and fctvties of the field, they are also concerned with the criteria (such as training, belonging to an organization) which make them “professionals” and which make educational technology their “professional home,” definition of the profession of educational technology would sddvess Itself more to the ques tion of "who fs an educational technotogist? To select any single viewpoint to the exclusion ofthe others as the basis for the definition would limit both the scope and Utility of the definition, Therefore, the definition of educational technology present: fed here will define educational technology from all Uhree perspectives, It will define educational technology asa theoret- Teal construct-showing the ideas and principles and how they are synthesized into a cohesive entity; as a feld-showing ts Applications in and implications for the real world; and as a profession -idemtifying the criteria for this special group within the field Defining educational technofogy from all three perspectives is rot enough, however, for an adequate definition. In addition, the definition must directly relate these three viewpoints into a cohetent whole, To do this, it must make the definitions of the theoretical construe, the field, and the profession conerts cent, The definition must clearly show how the field derives from, and relates to, the theoretical construct, and how the profession derives from and relates to the field, Without such ongeuence, the definition would be unusable. REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEFINITION To achieve this congruence, and subsequent utility, itis necessary to establish the criteria for defining 2 theoretical Construct, afield, and a profession requirements which ensure that the definitions interelate. This fx best done by beginning with the most extensive list of requirements-those for defining 4 profession-and then by identifying which of these require Imants are necessary for defining the field, and then a theoret eal eonsteuc, “These requirements are best spelled out in the lst of "Char acteristics of a Profession” first identified by Finn and later ‘modified by Finn, AECT, ane Silber. They are an organized body of intellectual theory, constantly expand ing by research; an iellectual techniques an application of that technique to practical affaes: 2 Tong pevid of taining and certification; a series of standards and 2 statement of ethics which is enforced (Fina, 1953);the ability to exercise its own leadership (Finn, 19604); an association of members of the profession into a closely Knit group with a high quality of communications among members (Finn, 1953); acknowledgement 2s profession (Silber, 1974); professional concern for responsible use ofits work; an established relationship with other professions (AECT, 1972) The characteristics required for defining 2 theoretical con struct, a field, and a profession ate identified in the fllowing Sections, along with a more detailed explanation of each chara teristic DEFINING A THEORETICAL CONSTRUCT To define educational technology as a theoretical consteuct, ‘only the frst of the above characteristics is required: an oxgani- red body of intellectual theory, constantly expanding by esearch, According to Finn (1953, p. 8) the most fundamental and most important characteris. thatthe sks ace founded upon a Body of intelectual Heory and reset. Funtermore this systematic theory Is constant being Cepanded by tse and thinking within the profession. As White head sts, te practic ofa pofestioncanot be dsjoned fam is theoretic understanding ote versa.» The ame 10a profeson san avecation Raed on cstomaryativies and mi bythe tal and vor of individ! practice. Such an arocation Scrat." (Sith ete, 1981, 9.557) If the definition of educational technology #8 to rect this requirement, i ust meet the requirements Fr a theory * while often used ractice™ of "practi Definition of Theory. The term “theor collogually 2s an antonym forthe terms fal” has a precise meaning: 1. a general principle, supported by considerable data, proposed as an explanation of 3 group of plhenomens; 3 Statement of the relations believed to prevail ina compre hensive body of facts (English & English, 1958, p. $51), 2. a principle or set of principles that explain a number of related facts and predict new outcomes based on these facts (Wheeler er af, 1975, p. 638) Characteristics of @ Theory. Based on these definitions, and other writings about theories (Klausmeier & Goodwin, 1966; Heinich, 1970; Arnoult, 1972) the following characteristics of 2 theory can be identified: existence of a phenomenon-there must be some extant phenomenon not completely understood in terms of eurrent knowledge; ‘explanationa theory provides an explanation of why or how the phenomenon occurs (a8 opposed to simple confirmation of ts existence); suimmarizing-a theory summarizes what is already known about relationships among 2 large body of empirical informa: tion, concepts, and generalizations; orientation—defines and narrows the facts to be studied as well 3s dstingushingeelevan and ievelevant data; systematizing-provides a scheme by which the relevant ‘Bhentomena, postlates, and laws are systematized, classified, and intereateds ‘ap identification points out areas which are relevant but tihich have been ignored or not resolved at the present 2s Wwoll as identifying aeeas for future study; sencrate strategies for research~ provides a bass for formula {ing new hypotheses and carrying out further research based fon the explanation; prediction-goos beyond empiricial data and what is known to enable extrapolation and prediction of new facts and hhypatheses that are at present unknown IK the definition demonstrates the existence of a phenome: non that is not currently understood; explains, summarizes ‘orients, systematizes, identifies gaps related to the phenome hom; generates strategies for asearch about it; and makes Predictions about it, then the definition meets the requirements for being a theory.DEFINING A FIELD A id ia ae of aetsty whieh Ymbraces potions of com cept, sls an prods from a numberof aeadeicdspines Se ao fom oer applied Fld nd wel her no new aa Cations" [Pnn, 1963 pf, avotng Gerber) In order to meet the requitements for defining a field, the definition of educational technology must meet> the requir iments for defining educational technology 3s 4 theory; !¥o ditional characteristics of a field intellectual techniques and practical application, and the characteristic of uniqueness. Intellectual. Technique, An intellectual technique is. the approach used to solve problems—the manner in which an individual searches for solutions. Gagne and Briggs (1975) ‘would call intellectual technique a cognitive. stratepy—the process that controls internal thinking processes and. brings them to bear in certain ways to solve problems, Intellectual technique serves as the bridge between theory and practical application Proctica! Application, Practical application involves making thous, ideas, and processes operational 1 results intangible products, For example, a person actually performing 2 scien tific experiment oF cartying out the steps ofthe insructional development process is making a practical application of intel lectual technique, In addition, practical application indicates how the intellec tual technique i to be put into operation in the context of the organizational stictures and institutions in whieh the field operates Uniqueness. Since the definition above indicates that a field ‘welds intellectual techniques and practical applications into new Applications, the intellectual technique and practical application identified by the definition must be unique to the Field. They must be characteistis found in no other field Ifthe definition leads to a unique intellectual technique and unique practical nplications, then the Field it defines ean be said to be unique Thus, the definition of educational technology a6 feld must fist define a8 3 theoretical construct, then identify an inte: lectual technique and a practical application, and demonstrate that these are nique to the feld of educational technology. DEFINING A PROFESSION To define educational technology 28 profession, the require iments for defining 2 theoretical construct and a field must fist be met. Then the definition must meet all the other charac: teristics of a profession Training and Certtication. Petiods of tong training are need- ed to develop specialists and technicians in the profession “There must he some specification of "the nature of the taining either through state regulation of some sort or through a system fof accrediting training institutions. [Training includes} The nature and content of professional education. certification Standards, admission standards and practices, and placement.” (Finn, 1953, pp. 9, 10) Standards and Ethics. Statements of ethies indicate how members of the profession should behave, Sets of standards specify guidelines forthe materials, devices, and facilities used by people in the profession. “However, the publication af codes of ethics and manuals of standards in itself guarantees nothing Professionalization occurs when enforcement is possible and vigorous.” (Finn, 1953, p. 12) “Leadership. Leadership is necesary to “seize the present and bend the future to proper ends.” However, to avoid the circum Stance that "many of the recent innovations that are giving us headaches today have been forced upon us from the outside,’ this leadership must come from within the profession, To exer cise its own leadership, the profession must "know our own posture...where we want to go and why.” (Finn, 19603, p.224) Association and Communication. A strong organization of people in the profession is needed in order to develop and Implement the other charactevistcs-especally standards and ties, leadership, and training, It isthe existence of a stiong association which makes possible the “vigorous enforcement of practices, standards, and ethics.It is also needed to facilitate communication among members ‘of the profession, communication which “is earted on by meet ings, joutnals of high quality, consultations, and other means.” (Finn, 1953, . 8) Acknowledgement os a Profesion. The members of a profes sion, must believe that there i a profession and that they are members of it. The existence of a profession cannot be mand ted oF thrust upon practitioner. They must want the profession to exist and acknowledge that it does so. They must acknow! telge that they are members of the profession, This acknowled ‘ment is manifested by the formation of existence af an associa tion, by the presence of the other characteristics of a profes sion, and by public acknowledgment of practitioners that there isa profession of which they are members, Professional Concern. Wt is not sufficient that a profession uses is intellectual technique in practical application. Addition ally, the profession must be responsible in its use. The profes Sion must be concerned about the uses to which is work ip in society. Ik must continuously examine the values for which it stands, and, If appropriate, take positions on societal sues affected by its work, (AECT, 1972) Relationship t0 Other Professions. There may be more than ‘one profession operating within the Field, Each of these profes sions is related-cither explicitly or implicily—to other profes Sions operating in the field, These relationships must be ac Knowledged, identified, and developed, (AECT, 1972) ORGANIZATION OF THE DEFINITION Since the characteristics provide, in sequence, the requite ments for defining a theoretical construct, 3 fel and 3 profes sion, they. will be used as the organizing framework for the Aefinition The requirement for defining a theoretical construct will be addressed fist, Chapter Il, “Expanding. Theory Historical Perspectives,” will review the past definitions and theories of| scducational technology. Chapter IV, “Expanding Theory The Current Theoretical Framework,” ‘will present the current Aefinition and theory of educational technology ‘The requitements for defining field willbe analyzed next in Chapter. V, “Intellectual Technique-Functions, Systematic Application of a Combination of Technologies, Synergistic Effect," and in Chapter VI, "Practical Application-Resovrees and Functions, Effects on Organizational Structure; fects on Processes of Education, The requirements for defining a profession will be addressed in Chapters VII-1X, Training wil be considered in Chapter VI, "Centfcation and Training.” Standards and ethics, leadership, association, communications, and acknowledgement 38-3 profession “will be discussed’ in Chapter Vill, "Profesional Associations." Finally, the concemed profession and its rela tionship to other professions wil be examined in Chapter IX, ‘Societal Context-Concerned Profession, Humanism, Relation ship to Other Professions The concluding chapter will evaluate the definition presented and present conclusions in tems of how well the requirements {or defining a theoretical constect, a fel, and a protesion are ret. It will then addees the question of wha i inthe field and the profession