THIYAGU.

M AUTOMOTIVE SENSORS

Automotive Sensors

1 of 20
THIYAGU. M AUTOMOTIVE SENSORS

Abstract:
This paper will provide a review of past, present and future automotive
sensors. Today’s vehicles have become highly complex sophisticated electronic
control systems and the majority of innovations have been solely achieved through
electronics and the use of advanced sensors. The environment for these sensors
continues to be increasingly challenging with respect to robustness, reliability, quality
and cost.

Introduction:
Today’s vehicles are pervaded with a diverse range of sensors providing
critical data for performance, safety, comfort and convenience functions. The
measurement of inlet manifold absolute pressure in early ignition and fuelling control
systems was one of the first and most successful automotive applications of sensors,
and continues to this day to be an important parameter. Traditional sensors have
been complemented by the addition of new sensors for new applications, for
example, long range radar, optical steering torque sensors, tyre pressure monitoring
systems and yaw rate sensors.

Sensor:
A sensor is a device that measures a physical quantity and converts it into a
electrical signal which serve as inputs for control systems can be read by an observer
or by an instrument.
Example: A thermocouple converts temperature to an output voltage which
can be read by a voltmeter. For accuracy, all sensors need to be calibrated against
known standards.

2 of 20
THIYAGU. M AUTOMOTIVE SENSORS

Application of Sensors:
Sensors are used in everyday objects such as touch-sensitive elevator buttons
(tactile sensor) and lamps which dim or brighten by touching the base. There are
also innumerable applications for sensors of which most people are never aware.
Applications include cars, machines, aerospace, medicine, manufacturing and
robotics.
A sensor is a device which receives and responds to a signal or stimulus. Here, the
term "stimulus" means a property or a quantity that needs to be converted into
electrical form.

Sensors in Automotive:
There are so many no of sensors in automotive field, here its few sensors are
listed which are mainly used in the same.

• Inlet Manifold Pressure

• Camshaft Position
• Air Temperature
• Fuel Temperature
• Fuel Pressure
• Knock
• Coolant Temperature
• EGR Valve Position
• Air Mass Flow
• Oxygen
• Adaptive Cruise Control Radar
• Parking Sensors
• Lane Departure Warning
• Driver Monitoring Hydraulic Pressure
• Lat/Long Acceleration
• Wheel Speed
• Yaw Rate
• Ride Height Position
• Steering Torque & Position
• Theft Prevention
• Occupant Airbag Systems
• Seat Belt Pre-tensioners
• Tyre Pressure Monitoring

3 of 20
THIYAGU. M AUTOMOTIVE SENSORS

• Occupant Detection
• Predestrian Detection
• Remote Keyless Entry
• Automatic Rain Wipers
• Automatic Headlamps
• Washer Fluid Level
• Headlamp Leveling

Sensor Market Trends (World):

Year Market Value

1991 $2.3b
1995 $3.8b
1997 $4.7b
2000 $7.0b
2006 $10.1b
2012 $15.8b

Air-fuel ratio sensor:

An air-fuel ratio sensor monitors the air-fuel ratio of an internal combustion
engine. It is also called as air-fuel ratio gauge, air-fuel meter or air-fuel gauge.
It reads the voltage output of an oxygen sensor, whether it be from a narrow band
or wide band oxygen sensor.

Benefits of air-fuel ratio sensor:

• Determining the condition of the oxygen sensor: A malfunctioning oxygen
sensor will result in air-fuel ratios which respond more slowly to changing
engine conditions. A damaged or defective sensor may lead to increased fuel
consumption and increased pollutant emissions as well as decreased power,
and throttle response.
• Reducing emissions: Keeping the air-fuel mixture near the stoichometric ratio
of 14.7:1 (for gasoline engines) allows the catalytic converter to operate at
maximum efficiency.
• Fuel economy: An air-fuel mixture leaner than the stoichometric ratio will
result in near optimum fuel mileage, costing less per mile traveled and
producing the least amount of CO2 emissions.
• Engine performance: Carefully mapping out air-fuel ratios throughout the
range of rpm and manifold pressure will maximize power output in addition to
reducing the risk of detonation.

Example:

4 of 20
THIYAGU. M AUTOMOTIVE SENSORS

o High voltage: fuel mixture rich, little unburned oxygen

o Low voltage: fuel mixture lean, excess oxygen

rich lean

Engine output

Fuel consumption

Lean mixtures improve the fuel economy but also cause sharp rises in the
amount of nitrogen oxides (NOX). Lean mixtures burn hotter and may cause rough
idle, hard starting and stalling, and can even damage the catalytic converter, or burn
valves in the engine. The risk of spark knock/engine knocking (detonation) is also
increased when the engine is under load.

Mixtures that are richer than stoichometric allow for greater peak engine
power when using gaseous fuels, due to the cooling effect of the evaporating fuel.
This increases the intake oxygen density, allowing for more fuel to be combusted and
more power developed. The ideal mixture in this type of operation depends on the
individual engine.

Cold engines also typically require more fuel and a richer mixture when first
started, because fuel does not vaporize as well when cold and therefore requires
more fuel to properly "saturate" the air. Rich mixtures also burn slower and decrease
the risk of spark knock/engine knocking (detonation) when the engine is under load.
However, rich mixtures sharply increase carbon monoxide (CO) emissions.

Oxygen sensors:
Oxygen sensors are installed in the exhaust system of the vehicle, attached to
the engine's exhaust manifold, the sensor measures the ratio of the air-fuel mixture.

As mentioned above, there are two types of sensors available; narrow band and wide
band. Narrow band sensors were the first to be introduced. The wide band sensor

5 of 20
THIYAGU. M AUTOMOTIVE SENSORS

was introduced much later. A narrow band sensor has a non-linear output, and
switches between the thresholds of lean (ca 100-200 mV) and rich (ca 650-800 mV)
areas very steeply.

Also, narrow band sensors are temperature-dependent. If the exhaust gases become
warmer, the output voltage in the lean area will rise, and in the rich area it will be
lowered. Consequently, a sensor, without pre-heating has a lower lean-output and a
higher rich-output, possibly even exceeding 1 Volt. The influence of temperature to
voltage is smaller in the lean mode than in the rich mode.

The Engine Control Unit (ECU) tries to maintain a stoichiometric balance, where in
the air-fuel mixture is approximately 14.7 times the mass of air to fuel for gasoline.
This ratio is selected in order to maintain a neutral engine performance.

The average level of the sensor is defined as 450 mV. Since narrow band sensors
cannot output a fixed voltage level between the lean and the rich areas, the ECU
tries to control the engine by controlling the mixture between lean and rich in such a
sufficiently fast manner, that the average level becomes ca 450 mV.

Crank sensor:
A crank sensor is a component used in an internal combustion engine to
monitor the position or rotational speed of the crankshaft. This information is used
by engine management systems to control ignition system timing and other engine
parameters. Before electronic crank sensors were available, the distributor would
have to be manually adjusted to a timing mark on the engine.

The crank sensor can be used in combination with a similar camshaft position sensor
to monitor the relationship between the pistons and valves in the engine, which is
particularly important in engines with variable valve timing. It is also commonly the
primary source for the measurement of engine speed in revolutions per minute.

Crank sensors in engines usually consist of magnets and an inductive coil, or they
may be based on magnetically triggered Hall effect semiconductor devices. Common
mounting locations include the main crank pulley, the flywheel, and occasionally on
the crankshaft itself. This sensor is the most important sensor in modern day
engines. When it fails, there is a small chance the engine will start (engine will likely
cut out after a few minutes of driving) but it mostly will not start.

6 of 20
THIYAGU. M AUTOMOTIVE SENSORS

Another type of crank sensor is used on bicycles to monitor the position of the
crankset, usually for the cadence readout of a cyclocomputer.

Throttle position sensor:

Throttle body showing "wide open throttle" sensor on the right

A throttle position sensor (TPS) is a sensor used to monitor the position of the
throttle in an internal combustion engine. The sensor is usually located on the
butterfly spindle so that it can directly monitor the position of the throttle valve
butterfly.

The sensor is usually a potentiometer, and therefore provides a variable resistance

dependent upon the position of the valve (and hence throttle position).

The sensor signal is used by the engine control unit (ECU) as an input to its control
system. The ignition timing and fuel injection timing (and potentially other
parameters) are altered depending upon the position of the throttle, and also
depending on the rate of change of that position. For example, in fuel injected
engines, in order to avoid stalling, extra fuel may be injected if the throttle is opened
rapidly (mimicking the accelerator pump of carburetor systems).

More advanced forms of the sensor are also used, for example an extra closed
throttle position sensor (CTPS) may be employed to indicate that the throttle is
completely closed.

Some ECUs also control the throttle position and if that is done the position sensor is
utilised in a feedback loop to enable that control.

7 of 20
THIYAGU. M AUTOMOTIVE SENSORS

Related to the TPS are accelerator pedal sensors, which often include a wide open
throttle (WOT) sensor. The accelerator pedal sensors are used in "drive by wire"
systems, and the most common use of a wide open throttle sensor is for the
kickdown function on automatic transmissions.

Modern day sensors are Non Contact type, wherein a Magnet and a Hall Sensor is
used. In the potentiometric type sensors, two metal parts are in contact with each
other, while the butterfly valve is turned from zero to WOT, there is a change in the
resistance and this change in resistance is given as the input to the ECU.

Non Contact type TPS work on the principle of Hall Effect, wherein the magnet is the
dynamic part which mounted on the butterfly valve spindle and the hall sensor is
mounted with the body and is stationary. When the magnet mounted on the spindle
which is rotated from zero to WOT, there is a change in the magnetic field for the
hall sensor. The change in the magnetic field is sensed by the hall sensor and the
hall voltage generated is given as the input to the ECU. Normally a two pole magnet
is used for TPS and the magnet may be of Diametrical type or Ring type or segment
type, however the magnet is defined to have a certain magnetic field.

Manifold Absolute Pressure (MAP) sensor:

A manifold absolute pressure sensor (MAP) is one of the sensors used in
an internal combustion engine's electronic control system. Engines that use a MAP
sensor are typically fuel injected. The manifold absolute pressure sensor provides
instantaneous manifold pressure information to the engine's electronic control unit
(ECU). The data is used to calculate air density and determine the engine's air mass
flow rate, which in turn determines the required fuel metering for optimum
combustion (see stoichiometry). A fuel-injected engine may alternately use a MAF
(mass air flow) sensor to detect the intake airflow. A typical configuration employs
one or the other, but seldom both.

MAP sensor data can be converted to air mass data using the speed-density method.
Engine speed (RPM) and air temperature are also necessary to complete the speed-
density calculation. The MAP sensor can also be used in OBD II (on-board
diagnostics) applications to test the EGR (exhaust gas recirculation) valve for
functionality, an application typical in OBD II equipped General Motors engines.

Example:

The following example assumes the same engine speed and air temperature.

• Condition 1:

An engine operating at WOT (wide open throttle) on top of a very high

mountain has a MAP of about 15" Hg or 50 kPa (essentially equal to the
barometer at that high altitude).

• Condition 2:

The same engine at sea level will achieve 15" Hg of MAP at less than WOT
due to the higher barometric pressure.

8 of 20
THIYAGU. M AUTOMOTIVE SENSORS

Vacuum comparison:
Vacuum is the difference between the absolute pressures of the intake
manifold and atmosphere. Vacuum is a "gauge" pressure, since gauges by nature
measure a pressure difference, not an absolute pressure. The engine fundamentally
responds to air mass, not vacuum, and absolute pressure is necessary to calculate
mass. The mass of air entering the engine is directly proportional to the air density,
which is proportional to the absolute pressure, and inversely proportional to the
absolute temperature.

EGR Testing:
With OBD II standards, vehicle manufacturers were required to test the EGR
valve for functionality during driving. Some manufacturers use the MAP sensor to
accomplish this. In these vehicles, they have a MAF sensor for their primary load
sensor. The MAP sensor is then used for rationality checks and to test the EGR valve.
The way they do this is during a deceleration of the vehicle when there is low
absolute pressure in the intake manifold (i.e., a high vacuum present in the intake
manifold relative to the outside air). During this low absolute pressure (i.e., high
vacuum) the PCM will open the EGR valve and then monitor the MAP sensor's values.
If the EGR is functioning properly, the manifold absolute pressure will increase as
exhaust gases enter.

Curb sensor:
Curb sensor mounted behind the front wheel of a 1950s Rambler American.

Curb sensor on a 1973 VAZ-2103 Zsiguli (left).

Curb sensors or curb finders are springs or wires installed on a vehicle

which act as "whiskers" to warn drivers that they are too close to the curb or other
obstruction.

The devices are fitted low on the body, close to the wheels. As the vehicle
approaches the curb, the protruding 'feelers' act as whiskers and scrape against the
curb, making a noise and alerting the driver in time to avoid damaging the wheels or
hubcaps. The feelers are manufactured to be flexible and do not easily break.

9 of 20
THIYAGU. M AUTOMOTIVE SENSORS

Defect detector:

Overview of a wheel impact detector installation & Sensors for the wheel condition
monitor.

A defect detector is a device used on railroads to detect axle and signal

problems in passing trains. The detectors are normally integrated into the tracks and
often include sensors to detect several different kinds of problems that could occur.
Defect detectors were one invention which enabled American Railroads to eliminate
the caboose at the rear of the train, as well as various station agents stationed along
the route to detect unsafe conditions. The use of defect detectors has since spread to
other overseas railroads.

As early as the 1940s, automatic defect detectors were installed to improve what
was normally done with the human eye by railroad workers. The detectors would
transmit their data via wired links to remote read-outs in stations, offices or
interlocking towers. If a defect was detected, an alarm would sound and the
employee on duty would bring the train to a halt using hand or automatic signals.

Parking sensors:

10 of 20
THIYAGU. M AUTOMOTIVE SENSORS

Parking sensor detector

Parking sensors are proximity detectors for road vehicles which can alert
the driver to unseen obstacles during parking manoeuvres. The ultrasonic sensors
are currently available in several brands of luxury cars with a variety of brand names
such as Parktronic and Parking Aid. Some systems are also available as additional
upgrade kits for later installation.

Description:

Parking sensor systems use ultrasonic proximity sensors embedded in the

front and/or rear bumpers, to measure the distances to nearby objects at low level.
The sensors measure the time taken for each sound pulse to be reflected back to the
receiver.

Depending on the speed of the vehicle and the distance to the obstacle, the system
will warn the driver by visual and/or audible means about the risk of collision. The
feedback to the driver will generally indicate the direction and proximity of the
obstacle. Warnings are deactivated when the vehicle exceeds a certain speed, and
can be switched off for situations such as stop-and-go traffic.

Radar gun:

U.S. Army soldier uses a radar gun to catch speeding violators at Tallil Air Base,
Iraq.

A radar gun or speed gun is a small Doppler radar unit used to detect the
speed of objects, especially trucks and automobiles for the purpose of regulating
traffic, as well as pitched baseballs, runners or other moving objects in sports. A
radar gun does not return information regarding the object's position. It relies on the

11 of 20
THIYAGU. M AUTOMOTIVE SENSORS

Doppler effect applied to a radar beam to measure the speed of objects at which it is
pointed. Radar guns may be hand-held or vehicle-mounted.

There are radar detectors on the market which can detect most police radar and
laser systems. Conversely, in the spirit of electronic warfare, some police radars are
equipped with detectors of operating detectors.

Working Principle:

Radar guns are, in their most simple form, radio transmitters and receivers.
They send out a radio signal, then receive the same signal back as it bounces off the
objects. However, the radar frequency is different when it comes back, and from that
difference the radar gun can calculate object speed.

A radar beam is similar to a beam of light in that it spreads out as the distance from
the signal origin increases. The signal then bounces off objects in the path of the
beam and are reflected back to the gun. The gun uses the Doppler effect to calculate
the speed of the object in the beam's path. Using a comparison of frequency shift
between received images instead of the frequency shift between sent and received
frequencies creates what is known as moving radar. Unless the radar system has a
provision for converting own-vehicle-speed to an appropriate receiver frequency
offset then the radar must be stationary to measure speed.

All bands of radar operate on different frequencies, work differently, and are very
complicated. X band guns are becoming less common due to the fact the beam is
strong and easily detectable. Also, most automatic doors utilize radio waves on X
band and can possibly affect the readings of police radar. As a result K band and Ka
band are most commonly used by police agencies.

Traffic radar comes in many models. There are hand held, stationary and moving
radar instruments. Hand held units are mostly battery powered, and for the most
part are used as stationary speed enforcement tools. Stationary radar is mounted in
police vehicles, and may have one or two antennae. These are employed when the
vehicle is parked. Moving radar is employed, as the name implies, when the police
vehicle is in motion. These devices are very sophisticated, able to track vehicles
approaching and receding both in front of and behind the patrol vehicle. They can
also track the fastest vehicle in the selected radar beam, front or rear.

GPS:
GPS devices are capable of showing speed readings based on how far the
receiver has moved since the last measurement (a second ago). As the GPS is an
independent* system, its speed calculations are not subject to the same sources of
error as the vehicle's speedometer. Instead, the GPS's positional accuracy, and
therefore the accuracy of its calculated speed, is dependent on the satellite signal
quality at the time. Speed calculations will be more accurate at higher speeds, when
the ratio of positional error to positional change is lower. The GPS software may also
use a moving average calculation to reduce error.

As mentioned in the satnav article, GPS data has been used to overturn a speeding
ticket; the GPS logs showed the defendant traveling below the speed limit when they

12 of 20
THIYAGU. M AUTOMOTIVE SENSORS

were ticketed. That the data came from a GPS device was likely less important than
the fact that it was logged; logs from the vehicle's speedometer could likely have
been used instead, had they existed. * some satnav devices may also use data from
the car's systems to improve accuracy.

Speed sensor:
Speed sensors are machines used to detect the speed of an object, usually a
transport vehicle. They include:

• Wheel speed sensors

• Speedometers
• Pitometer logs
• Pitot tubes
• Piezo sensors (e.g. in a road surface)
• Doppler radar
• ANPR (where vehicles are timed over a fixed distance)

Wheel speed sensor:

A wheel speed sensor or vehicle speed sensor (VSS) is a type of
tachometer. It is a sender device used for reading the speed of a vehicle's wheel
rotation. It usually consists of a toothed ring and pickup.

Special purpose speed sensors:

Road vehicles:

Wheel speed sensors are used in anti-lock braking systems.

Rotary speed sensors for rail vehicles:

Many of the subsystems in a rail vehicle, such as a locomotive or multiple unit,

depend on a reliable and precise rotary speed signal, in some cases as a measure of
the speed or changes in the speed. This applies in particular to traction control, but
also to wheel slide protection, registration, train control, door control and so on.

13 of 20
THIYAGU. M AUTOMOTIVE SENSORS

These tasks are performed by a number of rotary speed sensors that may be found
in various parts of the vehicle.

In the past, sensors for this purpose often failed to function satisfactorily or were not
reliable enough and gave rise to vehicle faults. This was particularly the case for the
early mainly analogue sensors, but digital models were also affected.

This was mainly due to the extremely harsh operating conditions encountered in rail
vehicles. The relevant standards specify detailed test criteria, but in practical
operation the conditions encountered are often even more extreme (such as
shock/vibration and especially electromagnetic compatibility (EMC)).

Speedometer:
A speedometer is a device that measures the instantaneous speed of a land
vehicle.

• Inaccurate due to its mechanism, shape of fuel tank

• Gauge: resistance ↑, current ↓, bimetallic cools, straighten out, pull needle
form full to empty.
• Newer car: resistor output into a microprocessor – compensate shape of
tank
• Damping needle movment up hill , down hill , turn

Speedometers for other vehicles have specific names and use other means of
sensing speed. For a boat, this is a pit log. For an aircraft, this is an airspeed
indicator.

The speedometer was invented by the Croatian Josip Belušić in 1888, and was
originally called a velocimeter.

14 of 20
THIYAGU. M AUTOMOTIVE SENSORS

Operation:

An eddy-current speedometer gauge on a car, showing the speed of the

vehicle in kilometres per hour. Also shown is the tachometer, which displays the rate
of rotation of the engine's crankshaft.

The eddy current speedometer has been used for over a century and is still in
widespread use. Until the 1980s and the appearance of electronic speedometers it
was the only type commonly used.

Originally patented by a German, Otto Schulze on 7 October 1902, it uses a rotating

flexible cable usually driven by gearing linked to the tail shaft (output) of the
vehicle's transmission. The early Volkswagen Beetle and many motorcycles,
however, use a cable driven from a front wheel.

A small permanent magnet affixed to the rotating cable interacts with a small
aluminum cup (called a speedcup) attached to the shaft of the pointer on the
analogue instrument. As the magnet rotates near the cup, the changing magnetic
field produces eddy currents in the cup, which themselves produce another magnetic
field. The effect is that the magnet "drags" the cup, and thus the speedometer
pointer, in the direction of its rotation with no mechanical connection between them.

The pointer shaft is held toward zero by a fine spring. The torque on the cup
increases with the speed of rotation of the magnet (which is driven by the car's
transmission.) Thus an increase in the speed of the car will twist the cup and
speedometer pointer against the spring. When the torque due to the eddy currents in
the cup equals that provided by the spring on the pointer shaft, the pointer will
remain motionless and pointing to the appropriate number on the speedometer's
dial.

The return spring is calibrated such that a given revolution speed of the cable
corresponds to a specific speed indication on the speedometer. This calibration must

15 of 20
THIYAGU. M AUTOMOTIVE SENSORS

take into account several factors, including ratios of the tailshaft gears that drive the
flexible cable, the final drive ratio in the differential, and the diameter of the driven
tires.

Electronic Type Speedometer:

Many modern speedometers are electronic. A rotation sensor, usually

mounted on the rear of the transmission, delivers a series of electronic pulses whose
frequency corresponds to the rotational speed of the driveshaft. The sensor is
typically a toothed metal disk positioned between a coil and a magnetic field sensor.
As the disk turns, the teeth pass between the two, each time producing a pulse in
the sensor as they affect the strength of the magnetic field it is measuring.[1]
Alternatively, some manufactures rely on pulses coming from the ABS wheel
sensors.

A computer converts the pulses to a speed and displays this speed on an

electronically-controlled, analog-style needle or a digital display. Pulse counts may
also be used to increment the odometer.

Another early form of electronic speedometer relies upon the interaction between a
precision watch mechanism and a mechanical pulsator driven by the car's wheel or
transmission. The watch mechanism endeavors to push the speedometer pointer
toward zero, while the vehicle-driven pulsator tries to push it toward infinity. The
position of the speedometer pointer reflects the relative magnitudes of the outputs of
the two mechanisms.

Changing a car's tire size can throw off a speedometer's accuracy.

Pitometer log:

Figure 1: Photo of World War II US Navy submarine pitometer. This unit uses a
mercury-based manometer to measure the difference in static and dynamic water
pressure.

16 of 20
THIYAGU. M AUTOMOTIVE SENSORS

Pitometer logs (also known as pit logs) are devices used to measure a ship's speed
relative to the water. They are used on both surface ships and submarines. Data
from the pitometer log is usually fed directly into the ship's navigation system.

Principles of Operation:

Figure shows Illustration of a Mercury Manometer-Based Pitometer Log.

The basic technology of the pitometer log is similar to that of the pitot tube on an
aircraft. Typically, the pitometer has a long tube that penetrates the ship's hull near
the keel. The part of the pitometer protruding from the ship is sometimes called a pit
sword or rodmeter. This tube usually has two openings: one facing the direction of
seawater motion that is used to measure the dynamic pressure of the seawater and
one at 90o to the direction of seawater motion that is used to measure the static
seawater pressure. The dynamic pressure of the seawater is a function of the depth
of the water and the speed of the vessel.

In early realizations of the pitometer log, mercury manometers [6] were used to
measure the pressure differences (see Figure 1).[4] Later realizations used
approaches that would generate equalizing pressures within the pitometer that would
balance out the dynamic pressure. This eliminated the need for mercury
manometers. [7]

Analysis:

An expression can be derived for the velocity of water impacting the ship as a
function of the difference in dynamic and static water pressure using Bernoulli's
principle. The total pressure of the water in the tube with moving seawater can be
described by Equation 1.

(Equation 1)
where

• pTotal is the total fluid pressure.

• pStatic is the static pressure, which strictly depends on depth.
• pDynamic is the fluid pressure caused by fluid motion.

Since water is an incompressible fluid, the dynamic pressure component of the total
pressure can be expressed in terms of the water density and the water velocity as is
shown in Equation 2.

(Equation 2)

where

17 of 20
THIYAGU. M AUTOMOTIVE SENSORS

• vWater is the speed of the fluid flow.

• ρ is the fluid density.

Equation 2 can be solved for the velocity of water in terms of the difference in
pressure between the two legs of the manometer. Equation 3 shows that velocity is a
function of the square root of the pressure difference.

(Equation 3)

Because the speed computed by the pitometer is a function of the difference

between pressure readings, the pitometer does not produce an accurate result when
the ship's velocity is low and the two pressure readings are nearly the same.

Optical sensor:
All the manufacturers previously active in this market used mainly optical
sensors.

From one to four channels can be implemented, each channel having a photosensor
that scans one of at most two signal tracks on a slotted disk. Experience shows that
the possible number of channels achievable by this technique is still not enough. A
number of subsystems therefore have to make do with looped-through signals from
the wheel slide protection electronics and are therefore forced to accept, for
instance, the available number of pulses, although a separate speed signal might
well have some advantages.

The use of optical sensors has been familiar for many years and is widespread in
industry. Unfortunately they do have two fundamental weaknesses that have always
made it very difficult to get them to function reliably over a number of years, namely
- the optical components are extremely susceptible to dirt, and - the light source
ages too quickly.

Even traces of dirt greatly reduce the amount of light that passes through the lens
and can cause signal dropout. These encoders are therefore required to be very well
sealed. Even sealing the encoder bearing to prevent it emitting grease is a problem
that even the ingenuity of designers has been unable to fully resolve. Further
problems are encountered when the pulse generators are used in environments in
which the dew point is passed: the lenses fog and the signal is frequently
interrupted.

The light sources used are light-emitting diodes (LEDs). But LEDs are always subject
to ageing, which over a few years leads to a noticeably reduced beam. Attempts are
made to compensate for this by using special regulators that gradually increase the
current through the LED, but unfortunately this further accelerates the ageing
process.

Variable reluctance sensor:

18 of 20
THIYAGU. M AUTOMOTIVE SENSORS

A variable reluctance sensor (VRS) is used to measure position and speed

of moving metal components. This sensor consists of a permanent magnet, a
ferromagnetic pole piece, a pickup coil, and a rotating toothed wheel.

As the gear teeth of the rotating wheel (or other target features) pass by the face of
the magnet, the amount of magnetic flux passing through the magnet and
consequently the coil varies. When the gear tooth is close to the sensor, the flux is at
a maximum. When the tooth is further away, the flux drops off. The moving target
results in a time-varying flux that induces a proportional voltage in the coil.
Subsequent electronics are then used to process this signal to get a digital waveform
that can be more readily counted and timed.

Although VR sensors are based on very mature technology, they still offer several
significant advantages. The first is low cost - coil of wire and magnets are relatively
inexpensive. Unfortunately, the low cost of the transducer is partially offset by the
cost of the additional signal-processing circuitry needed to recover a useful signal.
And because the magnitude of the signal developed by the VR sensor is proportional
to target speed, it is difficult to design circuitry to accommodate very-low-speed
signals. A given VR-sensing system has a definite limit as to how slow the target can
move and still develop a usable signal. An alternative but more expensive technology
is Hall effect sensor. Hall effect sensors are true zero-rpm sensors and actively
supply information even when there's no transmission motion at all.

One area in which VR sensors excel, however, is in high-temperature applications.

Because operating temperature is limited by the characteristics of the materials used
in the device, with appropriate construction VR sensors can be made to operate at
temperatures in excess of 300°C. An example of such an extreme application is
sensing the turbine speed of a jet engine or engine cam shaft and crankshaft position
control in an automobile.

VR sensor interface circuits VR sensors need waveform shaping for their output to
be digitally readable. The normal output of a VR sensor is an analog signal, shaped
much like a sine wave. The frequency and amplitude of the analog signal is
proportional to the target's velocity. This waveform needs to be squared up, and
flattened off by a comparator like electronic chip to be digitally readable. While
discrete VR sensor interface circuits can be implemented, the semiconductor industry
also offers integrated solutions. Examples are the MAX9924 to MAX9927 VR sensor
interface IC from Maxim Integrated products, LM1815 VR sensor amplifier from
National Semiconductor and NCV1124 from ON semiconductor. An integrated VR
sensor interface circuit like the MAX9924 features a differential input stage to
provide enhanced noise immunity, Precision Amplifier and Comparator with user
enabled Internal Adaptive Peak Threshold or user programmed external threshold to
provide a wide dynamic range and zero-crossing detection circuit to provide accurate
phase Information.

Water sensor:
The Water in Fuel Sensor or WiF sensor indicates the presence of water in
the fuel. It is installed in the fuel filter and when the water level in the water
separator reachs the warning level the Wif send an electrical signal to the ECU or to

19 of 20
THIYAGU. M AUTOMOTIVE SENSORS

dashboard (lamp). The Wif is used especially in the Common Rail engines to avoid
the unit injector damage.

The Wif sensor uses the difference of electric conductivity through water and diesel
fuel by 2 electrodes.

First generation Wif sensor uses a potting resin to isolate the electronic circuit, last
generation of Wif sensor (the WS3 sensor in Surface-mount technology) is made
totally without leakage using an innovative co-moulding process.

The last generation of water in fuel sensor has a high resistance to vibrations and to
thermal excursion cycles.

The main Automotive WiF designer and producer is the SIGMAR.

20 of 20