MECHANICS OF SOLIDS — waiN331 1 PREDICTING COMMON MECHANICAL FAILURES 1 Nominal stresses in a uniform bar Foc combined axial load and bending about principal axes Ox, Oy of a cross section, the rnaminal axial stress at point (z, y) due to the axial load F, (acting at 0) and bending moments M,, M, is, with the usual notation: _ My +— a 4 The maximum nominal shear stress due to a shear force F, in a principal direction is af, “ as @ A, where w (= 1,0...2.0) and the effective shear area A, depend cn the shape of the cross-section (eg: tr LS (rectangles); @ = 1.3 (solid circles); a = 1.2 (1 and T-beam webs), ete) Under a torque T = My the maximum nominal torsional shear stress is 8 where W; is the section modulus in torsion. For a solid or hollow circular section with diameters Dand d (= cD): 2(DS-d*) | wD? (le) o 16D 16 We For a rectangle or square with b > hi bh el " For a thin-walled tube of minimum wall thickness r and any shape enclosing a single area a: W,=2At @ dor F,) and the {At each point on the cross-section, the component shear stresses 7, (due to F, torsional stress 7, must be added vectorially to give the resultant shear St0eSS Tam 2 Peak (notch root) stresses In bars of non-uniform section, sizess concentrations occur near points where the section changes, giving peak stresses in the notch root which exceed the nominal stresses czlculated from (i) t0 @) above. 2.1 Theoretical stress concentration factors The maximum direct and shear stresses at a notch or other feature which causes siress concentration factors k, and &, is: er is ebeod ha fe 2.2 Empirical strength reduction factors To predict fatigue failures, effective fatigue strength reduction factors ky and fy, should De. used instead of the theoretical stress concentration factors. Fatigue strength reduction factors can either be determined experimentally or calculated from:1 ett he : i qs0.th tot 1 soalvhy pect A dam Me pe 2 PF Bels betes @ where &, and & are the appropriate stress La set concentration factors and s the noich sensitivity of 1p) "") the material (see Fig. 1). 3 Pailure criteria ‘The general criterion for any stress-induced failure is: @ a * Sin where the effective stress oy depends on the applied loading and both og and the material parameter Sy, py ; depend on the type of failure being investigated,” 8 4. Notch sensitivity s for steals. 3.1 Fielding (von-Mises / shear strain-energy criterion) For a general three-dimensional stress system with principal siresses (¢;, 0, a), yield is predicted when: Se aU es- 0p? ay 0yF #10, 0,9] 2S, = Sig a where S, is the uniaxial yield strength (or the 0.2% proof strength). For a general biaxial stress system (,, r5, 4,), this reduces to" ajo = 7 2) |g» for~ ot + + at 2 S, ‘ 3.2 ‘Brittle’ fracture (Coulomb / Mohr criterion) Ifo, = 0; & oy, then, according to Mohr's criterion, fracture is predicted whenever. 25, or ‘S, a-|s |e 25, or a S, - Se, 2S, Syr* where S, and J. are the uniaxial vensile and compressive fracture strengths. ‘The effective stress zg in (9) is thus the greatest of the expressions on the left of (12), For most brittle materials, $, and S, both decrease rapidly as the stressed volume (size) of the component increases. They both also depend on the maximum size @ of any flaws (cracks) present in it, since the fracture toughness K,, is proportional to $,.a\, so that S, is inversely proportional to a’? 3.3 Fatigue fracture (Sines & Waisman’s criterion) Each principal stress gj can be considered as the sum of a mean stress ayy and a cyciie stress aniplinude So, 1 (ey, oy Sng) We these mean principal stresses ard (A\o,, Ac, Avy) the principal stress amplitudes (with the do's of opposite sign for prinicpal strasses which vary ‘in antiphase’), the effective mean stress and effective stress amplitude are given by: matt = Ont * Oy * Fup (3).ay Hitas,- Ao)? e(S0,~ 4a) (42) ~49,] «1g) For a general biaxial stress system (0, tmy oy) these reduce to: as) Cag = One® Soy Mog 2 (Aer 40,40, ° bor 3ae, aa For “long life’ components (those whose life M, exceeds 10!,.10% cycles), failure occurs if: 1 of No\e Og © 8Oey + Onay 50! | * Sim an where Np (= 107 cycles) is the life at (or just above) the ‘endurance limit 5," and m ( ~ 0.3) and qf = 5.09) are empirical constants. For ‘infinite’ tife (8, > No), #¢ Sin Se cater endian Marin’ Bad atin Lace et ao oN Fe he actual endurance limit 5° of the matérial is given.bys—— © ee re Oo cos. ee Wwe ws) Ce catenin 5q) = Fauc Face ys where S, (= 0.5 S,) is the alternating Being endurance limit determined by standard ‘Wohler tests (on unnorched, polished specimens of typically 6..8 mm diameter) and ky, Knees 80. are empirical correction factors to allow for the different surface texture, size, etc. of the component and the saandard Wobler test specimens, see Figs. 2 and 3. 4 “esse re a 9 ama gsi Fig. 2. Susface factor key for steeis. Fig. 3. Size factor ku, for steels. 4 Contact stresses i 4.1 Conforming contacts oar contact preSSUf© Pay, between two conforming, surfaces with a geometrical defined area of contact under a normal load F, acting shrough its centroid is: F, hon * Pagan 7 «9s ’ 4, where 4, is the projection of the nominal area of contact on a plane perpendicular to F,. The peak’ contact pressure is then4 P= ky Prom (20) were k, allows for non-aniforen distribution of pressure over Ae ‘typically k, = f...3. Ifthe toad F, acts ecoentrically, a linear variation Of Pron (2 ) over A, should be assumed, a3 in (1). 4.1 Hertzian contacts Feria tine and point conacs the maximucn contact pressuve p and related quantiies are given by Hertz’ equations. In the usual notation: Point contacts (sphere on sphere/plane) OTF, F, Tre asi jae; p25 Fa) oo39g \ree 2 050: Fyn 2057 ay { E rai) Line contacts (cylinder on cylinder/pians) s, n #Oap 2 ype eee 23) E+E, Ot Pa ‘and [, is the contact length and z, the depth to the point of maximum Shear StPe88 Tue 5 Surface failure 5.1 Static indentation (crushing) Crushing at a contact is predicted when p 2p, = 5,k, = 23(Hy~ Ik, (ijmum?) Gay whece 5, (W/m) is the yield strength of the weakest surface, Fy (kgf?) its Viekers surface faninesy and & = 1.0 (conforming contacts} or &, = 3.2 (Hertrian contacts). 5.2 Surface fatigue (pitting) Sartace fatigue is predicted after Ny, eycies of repeated (or rolling) loads wher N,V N,V » \ pe ol = 2.9(Hy~15) q (N/ratn?) (23) I, hs, where Ny (= 10%) is the life at the endorance Limit ye IPN, > 10% assume N, = My. The empirical exponent g = 5. 9, as in equation (17). 5.3 Wear Friston reduces the coniast pressure at flue by 20... 50% if significant Sliding occurs, particularly in poorly-lubricated contacts. At moderate sliding speeds Vin dry contacts or those Path only boundary lubrication, wear will cause failure at te L (hs) if Ly) a BV) 2 PVlo Bl 26 syne, for each materia pirog and Tuiaton condition, f.W the fp. vale that gives wat failure in Le hrs). For fully ‘bedded’ contacts, fin (20) is low: ypically only /.0..2.2> eclioors af Sle * Rewsinn Bof tf or . + Shajey Fre avclipe © cyl bron: C Basel on eebe’s fav ) Fie plots goto L fro le 2-9 Zl 70 : 2G 70 w) ZMg so paar Q: ay. pink « bs PE ks Free. body age Goowed one Shon 2th oh opph,.equabons Gu A er av 4 sry Hoth yf gore poh syn . . y > ZA st 8 2 4 ZR-e gf + k -WtK 4B 20 Tele mands M,=0 iD) -Wa th (ath )=0 Te feck nena forces — ‘ Ro wb y res 6 te eee ae Ra ian. * dds | Pet Peo 2s 7m tHe ee -wee- wa) > Be Ms We - SER € Vall fr are ) A pau BBD he he “patel sim on ote po i only 3 wcependrt retin. bm oy: fie fe Ee # pur thon 3 vabyos. (, over constengal ')abe fo eal Ae. res se ea ira - 3 elptalent cororciahes pstclef b pep prin os J atof Cae A repented comoicbnd’y ted... WS speely the prnten £5 $f. uf belies ta plobte Ther oof ) a Grnsatel _ Spiteins . Cumsetione fervor. “a if Lope connve fon 4) _&. conc pelvek “a wonton allast Ke Ayatin, 8 mabe - + Pepmauez (kof bh pin Sort Cfevetimtegs 7 — Fags we A J . felelie motion - allbws 8. Ramoes 2 ad, 6) Pavel fort. A fowous 2D « Hoss. wl f oe ne halise is gen FED ~ - / / ye