Weather and Crops Study Material

Abid Hussain, MSc, Horticulture, abid.tnau@gmail.
com
GENERAL AGRICULTURE STUDY MATERIAL
WEATHER AND CROPS
• The areas of heavy rainfall exist in the windward side of

Western Ghats and Khasi Hills and the Himalayas.
• Rajasthan receiving < 500mm rainfall annually.
• The average rainfall of 1,050 mm is highest in any part of the
world.
• 85-90% of the rainfall over the country occurs mostly during
southwest monsoon.
• North – East monsoon is the main contributor to the amount of
rainfall over the Southeast portion of peninsular.
• The conditions in the State, where the tracks of depression
terminate ex: - In Gujarat & Rajasthan tend to be erratic very
violent & destructive storms – Kalbaishaki of Bengal & Dust
storms/Andhis occur over Northwest India. Hailstorms occur
one/two occasions in the year, and pose a potential Hazard to
Rabi crops.
• Cyclonic Storms: On an average 2-3 storms may be expected in
a year.
Western disturbances: -
• These disturbances result in light rains which benefit the Rabi
crops.
• The cold waves are sometimes injurious to vegetables and fruit
crops.
Variability of rainfall
• The areas with low/scanty rainfall are generally the areas of
the high variability in rainfall.
S.d
• C .V. = -------- X100
X
• C V is 60-80 % in Western Rajasthan.

Drought
• Drought is taken to have occurred over an area where annual
rainfall is less than 75 % of the normal.
• When the annual rainfall is 50% of the normal it is called
severe drought.
• The palmer drought index which takes in to account rainfall
evapo-transpiration and soil moisture is considered as a
comprehensive approach in the problem.
Floods: Rainfall exceeding 40-50 cm within 24 hours results in
Floods.
Evapo-transpiration and water balance.
• The areas of high annual potential evapo-transpiration are
extreme in Rajasthan (Jaisalmer) and the exterior South of T N
(Tuticorn).
• Frosts: The forest hazard is greatest in Punjab.
• Sunshine: High Humidity and warm temperature are conducive
to most plant diseases.
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Abid Hussain, MSc, Horticulture, abid.tnau@gmail.com
Weather modification & crop production
• The technique of cloud seeding aims at correcting the
deficiencies of nuclei in the cloud.
Silver iodide - cold clouds
Sodium chloride - warm clouds
• In India the cloud seeding experiments were conducted in
Jaipur, Agra & Delhi in the monsoon season during the period
ranging from 4 –9 years.
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SOILS
Igneous rocks: - mainly contains feldspars, marphic minerals &
quartz.
• The rocks containing high proportion of quartz Acidic (60-75
% quartz)
Ex: granite
• The rocks containing less proportion of quartz  Basic (<50%)
Ex: Basalts (Deccan trap).
• Common igneous rocks – Basalts (Basic) & Granite (Acidic)
Sedimentary rocks: -
• Derived form igneous rocks & is formed by the consolidation of
fragmentary rock materials.
Ex: -conglomerate, sandstone. Shale & limestone.
Metamorphic rocks: -
• They are formed from the igneous/sedimentary rocks the action
of high pressure & intense heat, both resulting in considerable
change in texture & mineral composition.
Ex: - Gneiss from - granite
Quartzite from - quartz/ sandstone
Marble from - limestone
Slate from - shale
• Pedology: study of soil formation & soil development
• Edephology: study of soil in relation to crop husbandry
• A2 horizon - is called as Elluvial Zone
• Particle Sizes:
International
System (mm) USDA (mm)
Gravel 2 & above 2 & above
Very coarse sand 2 – 1 --
Coarse sand 1 – 0.5 2 – 0.2
Medium sand 0.5 – 0.25 --
Fine sand 0.25 – 0.1 --
Very Fine sand 0.1 – 0.05 --
Silt 0.05 – 0.002 0.02 – 0.002
Clay < 0.002 < 0.002
Textural classes:
• The clayey soils hold more moisture but they have high wilting
%
Density: T – A
% Pore space (P) =--------- x 100
T
T - true density
A - apparent density
Soil air:
1/3 r d of the pore space in the soil by air & two thirds of it by
water constitute most favourable condition for plant growth.
Soil water:
1. Hygroscopic water: - 31 atm. & more
- Not available to plant
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- Discontinuous film
2. Capillary water: - continuous film
- Held by surface tension
0.3 - 31 atm.
3. Gravitational water: - held at below 0.3 bars
- Influenced by gravity.
• F.C.: - held at 0.3 bars to 15 bars
It is generally recognized that the capillary water held at
tension greater than 15 atm is not available to crops. At this the
plants shows the wilting symptoms hence 15 atm is called as
wilting point.
Soil Structure: -
Granular structure (spheroidal) is considered very favourable to
plant growth.
Clay fractions: -
1. Kaolinite: - - 1: 1 layer silicate
-Held together by mutually held oxygen
2.Montmorillonite: - 2:1 (silica to aluminia)
- Held together through weak oxygen linkages
3. Illite: - 15 % of silica in silica sheet is replaced by

aluminium and potassium atoms.
Principle minerals of earthcrust: -
Minerals approximate (%)
Feldspars 48
Quartz 36
Micas 10
Clay CEC (me / 100g)
Kaolinite 3-10
Illite 10-30
Montomorillonite 80-150
• Soil having >15% ESP - Alkali soil
• C: N ratio of O.M.  10:1
• Average value of C: N ratio of Indian Soils - 14:1
• Micro flora - Bacteria, Actinomycetes, Fungi & Algae
• Micro fauna - protozoa & nematodes
NH3 NO2
NO3
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Nitrosomonas Nitrobacter
 Nitrosofication-
1----------------------------------nitrification
----------------------1
• Protozoa are unicellular organisms.
Land capability classification
Arable land
Class - I - productive & suitable for intensive cropping.
II - used for raising many cultivated crops.
III - need careful management
IV - the cultivation of crop is restricted to once in 3-4

years.
V - restrict their use to pasture/adoptable tree species.
VI - restricted to pasture & silviculture.
VII - restrict their use for grazing.
VIII - use is restricted to recreation / wild life.
Alluvial soils: -
• This is the largest & most important soil group of India

contributing the largest share to its agricultural wealth.
Two types
1. Khadar - newer alluvium of sandy.
2. Bhangar - older alluvium of more clayey.
Black soils; -
• Maharastra has maximum black soil area in India.
Red soils: -
• Tamil Nadu has maximum red soil area in India. (2/3 r d of

cultivated area)
• Clay fraction is rich in Kaolinite.
• Colour is due to Hydration of the ferric oxide in them.
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Lateritic soils: -
All Lateritic soils are very poor in lime and magnesia and are
deficient in Nitrogen.
Desert soil -
Most predominant component of the desert sand is quartz
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Acid tolerant crops: -
Cereals Legumes miscellaneous
Maize Groundnut Sugarcane
Rice Soybean Potato
Wheat Berseem Tea
Barley Lentil
Oats
Saline & alkali soils:
• 7 m ha area has gone out of cultivation.
• Saline soils are also called as- white alkali soils
• Sodic soils are also called as - black alkali soils
Reclamation
• Acid soils - lime
• Basic soils - gypsum
• Saline soils - sulphuric pyrite and also gypsum
WATER RESOURCES
• Average annual rainfall is about 120 cm (India) and that of global

is 99 cm.
• Water source of the country - 178 M Ha M
• Ground water runoff is roughly assessed at about - 45 mham
• The utilizable flow has been estimated to be 66.6 mham
• Ground water recharge in the country as a whole works out

at10% of the total rainfall.
• Total volume of surface water presently utilized for irrigation is

about - 23.5 mham.
• The total volume of ground water presently used for irrigation is

estimated about 10.5 mham.
• The present total utilization of surface water for irrigation may

then be taken as - 23.31 (23.50) mham.
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• As regards the net area sown - 142mha
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LAND UTILIZATION
• Total geographical area - 328 mha, the land use statistics is

available only for 306 mha constituting 98% of the total.
• Technical committee in co-ordination of agricultural

statistics set up in 1948 by Ministry of food & agriculture.
• Arable land = net area sown + current of allows + other of

allow land
• Potential land available = available land+ cultivable waste

+ permanent postures & grazing land
Net area sown
• % Potential land exploited = --------------------- x 100
Potential land
Net area sown
% Arable land = ------------------- x100
Arable land
• 65.9 mha (21.6 %)
• Net area sown - 141.16 mha (46.1%)
• Gross cropped area -167.4 mha
Reporting area: -
• MH has highest net sown area in the country.
• The gross cropped area is highest in UP followed by MP &

MH.
UP has largest gross irrigated area in the country which is

about 21.6 % of the country as a whole, followed by Punjab -
11.0 and AP - 10.95
• In case of food grains - UP has highest irrigated area - 22.3

% followed by AP (11.7%) and Punjab (9.7 %)
• Non food grains - irrigated area UP – 19.2% and Punjab -

16.1 %
• State producing highest agricultural produce - UP (21.6%)
• Total geographical area (highest) - Rajasthan
• Area under forest (highest) - Madhya Pradesh

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• Land put to non cultural uses (highest) - Andra Pradesh
• Barren & uncultivated land (highest) - Rajasthan
• Net area sown (highest) - Madhya Pradesh
SOIL AND WATER CONSERVATION
Extent of soil erosion
It is estimated that out of 305.9 mha of reporting area 145 mha is

in need of conservation measures.
Gullies are the most spectacular evidence of the destruction of

soil.
Wind erosion
• Saltation: the major portion of the soil carried by wind is

moved in a series of short bounces called Saltation. The soil
carried in a Saltation consists of fine particles ranging from
0.1 – 0.5 mm in diameter.
Mechanical measures of erosion control: -
1. Basin listing : Basin listing consists in making of small

interrupted basins along the contour with a special implement
called a basin -lister.
2. Subsoiling : This method consists in breaking with a subsoiler

the hard and impermeable subsoil to conserve more rainwater
by improving the physical conditions of a soil.
3. Contour – Bunding: This consists in making a comparatively

narrow based embankment at intervals across the slope of the
land on a level that is along the contour. It is an important
measure that conserves soil and water in arid & semiarid areas.
Slope - 3-6 %
4. Bench terracing : It consists of a series of platforms having

suitable vertical drops along contours or on suitable graded
lines across the general slope of the land. The vertical drop
may vary from 60 – 180 cm depending upon slope and soil
condition. Slope - 16 – 33%
Water sources: -
• The southwesterly monsoon contributes over 80 % to the

total precipitation.
• Shallow well derive their water supply from the surrounding

area through seepage, percolation, high water table etc.
• Deep wells depend for their water on aquifers.
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Salt tolerance crop:
1. Tolerant sps (>5000 ppm): Barley, sugarcane, datepalm,

grape, kale, cotton, rhodes, grass, sesbania
2. Semi tolerant sps (< 2500 ppm – 5000): Rice, sorghum, maize,
Barley, sunflower, Lucerne, berseem/guar, safflower, onion,
wheat, bajra.
3. Sensitive sps (< 2500 ppm): peas, cabbage, grapes, orange,

potato, tomato
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Boron toxicity tolerant:
1. Tolerant sps: (2-4 ppm): - datepalm, sugar beet, Lucerne,

onion, turnip, cabbage, and lettuce
2. Semi-tolerant (1-2 ppm): - wheat, maize, barley, cotton,

sunflower, potato, tomato, peas & sweet potato
3.Sensitive crops (0.3-1 ppm): - Apple, apricot, grape, orange,

cherry, walnut
• Water requirement = consumptive use of water +

application
Losses+ special needs
1 cubic foot of water - 62.4 lb
1 cubic foot /sec = one cusec = 448.83 gallons
= 0.99 acre. inch/hr = 100 tons
1 Acre inch of water = 101 tons = 12.8 cubic meter = 22,660

gallons
Sprinkler method : can be adopted in the case of almost all

crops and is specially suited to shallow sandy soils of uneven
topography, where leveling is not practicable.
Drip irrigation: - first initiated in Israel.
Critical stages of rice: - tillering and flowering
Water need for rice: Conditions
1000 –1500 mm heavy soils, high water table,

kharif
1500 – 2000 mm medium soils, kharif
2000 – 2500 mm light soils, long duration varieties.
WHEAT: -
Optimum moisture range - 100 – 60 % of availability.
Critical stage - crown root initiation (CRI) - 3 weeks after

sowing (21-25 days)
- Flowering
- Grain development
Maize: -
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Critical stages: - Early vegetative period - 30-40 weeks after
Sowing
- Tasselling - 45-50 weeks after sowing
Maize is highly sensitive to excess water
Sorghum: -
Critical stages: - pre-flowering and grain development
Kharif legumes - kidney bean -Green gram (Mung), pigeon

pea.
-Black gram (mash)
Rabi legumes: - gram, lentil, pea and Indian bean.
Critical stages of pulses: - early vegetative growth, flowering,

pod development.
Sunflower and mustard are relatively hardy crops and can

withstand more unfavourable conditions that other.
Cotton: - extremely sensitive to excess moisture and lack of

aeration. Optimum soil moisture is necessary during the stages of
flowering and ball formation.
• Sugarcane: - only vegetative growth is the economic

importance. (Formative stage)
• Tobacco: - water with a high chloride content, affects the

leaf, burning quality and hence is unsuitable for irrigation.
• Potato: - stolonization and tuber formation stages during

20-60 days growth are critical.
• Onion And Garlic: - bulbing is most important critical

stage.
• Tomato, watermelon & Muskmelon: - excessive irrigation

during ripening results in fruit cracking and hence it should
be avoided.
SOIL FERTILITY AND FERTILIZER USE
Cations form of uptake by plants
K K+
Ca Ca++
Mg Mg++
Fe Fe+++
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Zn Zn++
Anions
N NO 3 - , NH 4 +
P H 2 Po 4 -
S SO 4 -
Cl Cl -
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3 mechanisms of absorption of nutrients : -
1. Mass flow / convection
2. Diffusion
3. Contact exchange and root interception.
• Mass flow /convection is considered to be important of

nutrient uptake.
• Nutrient ions such as nitrate, chloride & sulphate are not

absorbed by the soil colloids and remain mainly in solution. Such
nutrient ions area absorbed by the roots along with soil.
Diffusion: This mechanism is predominant in supplying most of

the phosphorous and potassium to plant roots.
Plant Nutrients & Their Functions.
Source
Carbon - CO2
Oxygen - air & water
Hydrogen - water
Nitrogen - air, soil & both
Others - soil
Primary nutrients - N, P, K
Secondary nutrients - Ca, Mg, S
Trace elements / micronutrients - Fe, Mn, Cu, Zn, B Mo, Cl
Primary and secondary elements are known as major elements.
Nitrogen: -
Excess _ lodging in cereals
-Delays maturation of plant.
Deficiency - reddening of leaves in cotton.
Phosphorus: -
Function; - formation of grains.
Offsets harmful effects of excess nitrogen in plants.
Deficiency: - purplish / reddish discoloration of the stem
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- Abnormal increase in the sugar content and the
Formation of anthocynin
Potassium: -
Function:
1. Enhance ability of a plant to resist pest, diseases and other

abnormal condition
2. Formation of starch and in the production and translocation

of sugars and is thus of special value of water rich crops.
Plants can take-up and store potassium in much larger

quantities than what is needed for optimum growth. This is
called luxury consumption.
Deficiency: - firing along the edges in maize leaves
Calcium: -
Function: - Constituent of cell wall (calcium pectate
- Involved in cell division
Excess - favours scab in potato
Deficiency - commonly associated with acidity.
Magnesium -
Function: - constituent of chlorophyll
- Necessary for formation of oil.
Deficiency: - in maize intraveinal chlorosis.
Sulphur: -
Function: - Important constituent of straw and plant stalk.
- Constituent of AAS - methionine and cysteine.
Fe: -
Deficiency: - gray speck - maize
Marsh spot - sugarcane (sugar beet)
Yellow diseases - spinach and beans
White streak - field peas
Dry spot - field peas
Leaf spot - field peas

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Cu: -
Deficiency - dieback in citrus
Zn: - is taken up by the plant in the ionic form/ complex with

chelating agent. Ex: EDTA.
Deficiency: - white bud - maize
Khaira - rice
In calcareous soils and soils with high P content the Zn

deficiency is commonly observed.
Boron: -
Deficiency: - Yellow and resetting - Lucerne
Snakehead - walnut
Pitting of fruits - tomatoes
Die back & corking of fruits - apples
Hollow stem and bronzing of curd in cauliflower
Brown heart - table beets and turnip
Molybdenum:
Deficiency: - whip tail in cauliflower, broccoli and other Brassica

species.
Chlorine: - In 1954 chlorine was proved as essential

micronutrient.
Deficiency: - bronze discoloration in tomatoes.
Na: - not an essential element but the presence is considered to

be beneficial.
• Most commonly used organic manure in India - FYM - 0.5 %

N
• Sewage, sludge and activated dry contains N  4-7 %
P 2 O 5  2.1 – 4.2 %
K 2 O  0.5 – 0.7%
• Tree leaves of pongamia, (Karanj/Honge) N  3.69 %
P 2 O 5  2.41%
K 2 O  2.42 %
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Crop Synonyms
Cowpea  chavli, lobia
Cluster bean  guar
Horsegram  Kulthi
Mothbean  Mutki, moth
Greengram  mung, mug
Blackgram  urd, urid (mush)
Redgram  arhar
• Calcium sulphate /gypsum and supper phosphate have proved

most promising in preventing the escape of ammonia.
• Folding 7,000 sheep for on night is said to add equivalent of

149.3 quintals of cattle dung.
• Calcium nitrate - also known as Chilean nitrate.
• Ammonium sulphate widely used fertilizer in the country.
• Nitrochalk: - is the trade name of a product formed by mixing

ammonium nitrate with 40% lime stone /Dolomite.
• Non- proteinaceous organic nitrogen  Urea.
CROPPING PATTERNS
Among post monsoon crops (rabi) wheat, sorghum & gram
• Largest area under Kharif maize is in UP
• The area under the Kharif Jowar in India is highest in

Maharashtra.
• Ragi is mainly concentrated in Karnataka.
• Bajra is drought resistant crop. The Rajasthan has maximum

area (4.6 mha) of Bajra (2/3 of total area of India).
• G/N - Gujarat is producing maximum G/N (24.4 %)
• Cotton - Maharashtra shares 36% of the total cotton area

followed by Gujarat.
• Hot water treatment for seed borne diseases - 54 o c for 1 min.
• Bordeaux mixture - CuSO4 + CaCO 3  Millardet
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• Burgundy mixture - CuSO4+ Na 2 CO 3  Mason
Systemic fungicides
Oxanthin derivatives - plantavax - oxycarboxin -for rusts
Vitavax - carboxin - for smuts
Agrimycin 100 is the mixture of streptomycin + tetracycline
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Diseases and Causal organisms
Rice
Brown spot - cochliobolus miyabeanus
Stem root - Leptosphaeria salvini
Sheath blight - Rhizoctonia solani
Foot rot/ bakanae - Gibberella fujikuroi
Bunt - Neovossia horrida
False smut - Ustilaginoidea virens
Leaf smut - Entyloma Oryzae
Ultra disease - Ditylenchus angustus
Bacteria blight - Xanthomonas Oryzae
Yellow dwarf - Mycoplasm
Leaf yellowing -Virus
Pan sukh (dry leaf disease) -Physiological
Khaira -Zn def
Wheat:
Black mould -Cladosporium herbarum
Pythium root rot -Pythium graminicolum
Foot rot -Helmisthosporium sativum
Hill bund -Tilletia foetida & T caries
Karnal bund -Neouossia indica
Flagsmut -Urocystis tritici
Loosesmut -Ustilago tritici
Stemrugt -Puccinea graminis tritici
Stripe rust (yellow rust) -Puccinia glumarum
Leaf / Brown rust - Puccinia recondita
Powdery mildews - Erysiphe graminis
Earcocle -Anguina Tritici
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Molya/cereal cyst nematode -Heterodera avenae
Insecticidal property of DDT in 1939 by  Paul Muller
Two breeding seasons of Lucusts  1) winter spring
2) Summer Monsoon
Ectoparasitic nematodes
Spiral nematodes - Helicotylenchus, Rotylenchus
Lance nematodes - Hoplolaimus
Ring nematodes - Cericonemoides,

Hemicriconemoides
Stunt nematodes - Tylenchonemoides
Sheath nematodes - Hemicycliophora
Semiendoparatic nematodes:
Citrus nematode - Tylenchus semipenctrans
Reniform nematode - Rotylenchus reniformis
Endoparasites:
Roof knot Nematode (RKN)-Meloidogyne sp
Cyst nematode - Heterodera, Globadera
Roof lesion nematode - Pratylenchus
Seed parasites nematode - Anguina tritici
Foliar nematode - Aphelenchoides sp
Stem & Bulb nematode - Ditylenchus sp
SL-120 – RKN resistant tomato variety released from IARI
• Bladed harrows are also called as Bakharas/guntakas.
• Agricultural produce Grading and Marketing Act (APGMA)
• Central Agmark lab – Nagpur & there are about 16 regional

labs.
1878 - Sea customs Act.
1955 - Essential Commodity Act.
NAFED - National Agricultural Co-operative Marketing Federation.
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Differed liabilities
Debt equity ratio = ------------------------
Net worth
AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION EDUCATION
• Community development programme – 1952
• The word extension was first used in USA
• Extension education is - Informal education
• National Extension Service (NES) - 1953
• Community development and extension Service in India
• Stage I - pre-independence Era: - (1886-1974)
• Sevagram - Mahatma Gandhi
• Shantiniketan - Rabindranath Tagore
• Marthandam - Spencer Hatch
• Gurugaon - F.L. Brayne
• Department of Agriculture – 1871 June
• 1905 – IARI  PUSA Bihar
• Royal Commission on Agriculture – 1928
• Stage II : post independent Era ( 1947 – 53 )
• Etawah Pilot project - (1948-52) - Albert Mayer
• Community development project (1952 Oct 2)
• Stage III : community development and National Extension

Service Era (1953 – 60 )
• National extension service was inaugurated on 2 n d Oct 1953
• In 1958 panchayat raj was introduced as recommended by the

Balwant Rai Mehta Committee.
• IADP - Intensive Agriculture Development Programme
• First Agriculture University - GBPUAT - 1960 pantnagar

(Rudrapur)
• SFDA - Small Farmer’s Development Agency  started under 4 t h

FYP
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• Bhoodan & Gramdhan Acts: started in early 1950’s  Acharya
Vinobha Bhave initiated this movement.
• The first attempt to prevent further fragmentation was made in

Maharashtra – (1947)
• Minimum Wages Act - 1948
• Insecticide Act - 1968 & Insecticide Rules - 1971
• Karnataka Cotton control Act - 1974
• Seeds Act -1966 seed rules - 1968
• Karnataka land improvement Act - 1966
• Karnataka Agriculture pests & Disease Act - 1974
• Fertilizers order - May 1973
• Destructive insect pest act - 1914
• Agricultural produce act - 1937
• Taccavi loans - started in 1973
• National co-operative development corporation act – 1962
Wheat
• Common bread wheat - T. aestivum
• Macaroni wheat - T. durum
• Indogangetic plains form the most important wheat area
• Soil - well-drained clayey loam.
• Spacing - 22.5 cm between rows.
• Varieties - medium long duration - kalyan sona Short

duration - sonalika
• Most critical stage - CRI stage
• Weedicide  2-4 D
• Phalaris minor - graminaceous problematic weed.
• Storage - < 10% moisture content
RICE
• Oryza sativa - cosmopolitan (Asian rice)
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• Ooryza glabarima - confined to Africa
• Fruit - caryopsis
• Rice is considered as short day plant
• West Bengal has highest rice area
• PH - 5- 8.5
• Spacing 20-25 cm
• Nursery area 10% of main field (1/10 t h of total area)
• Seed rate - 40-50 kg/ha
• In calcareous soils - Fe is deficit, so FeSO 4 is added.
• ‘Dapog’ nursery - used especially in place where there is

assured water supply & when early transplanting is needed &
30-40 m2 area is required to raise enough seedlings to
transplant 1 ha area.
• Water requirement is high than any other crop of similar

duration.
• About 37-75 acre-inches of water is needed.
Maize
• Native to America
• Highest production- UP
• With the average yield maze ranks first among cereals
• Nutritionally superior opaque – 2 composites - Shakti

Rattan Protina
• These opaque – 2 composites are rich in essential AAS life –

lysine & Tryptophan
• Pulses are deficit in methionine & Tryptophan
• Cereals are deficit in Lysine & Tryptophan
• Used in the manufacture of Beer & Whisky
Oats
Grown in Rabi - mostly for fodder
Black gram - Urd, mash
Bengalgram
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Germinated seeds are recommended to cure scurvy.
Malic and oxalic acids collected from green leaves are prescribed
for intestinal disorders.
Greengram
Highest production MP
Horsegram Highest production AP
Lentil Highest production MP
Moth bean Highest production Rajasthan
Peas Highest production UP
Pigeon pea (Red gram/ arhar) Highest production MH
Potato
Native – South America
Occupies largest area under any single vegetable in the world
Kufiri Jyothi.
Best method of starting potato is cold stores at 2.2 ºC at 75-80 %

RH
Tea
Popularly known as – health herb
Soils - acidic pH 4-6
Spacing - 120x75 cm - 10000 plants / ha
1 – 1 ½ year old nursery seedlings are used for planting in the

field.
Shade trees - oak ( Gravelea robusta ) Erythrina lithosperma

(dadapa)
Acacia
Albizzia
State: Assam
UPASI: United Planters Association of Southern India
Chinchona P O., Coimbatore dist., T.N.
Coffee
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State - Karnataka
Cocoa : Theobroma cocoa, Theobrama means –‘The food of

gods’
Coconut
Tree of heaven - coconut
India ranks 2 n d w.r.t. Coconut production.
Groundnut
Native - Brazil
Oil content - 44-50%
Oil is extensively used as cooking medium - both as refined oil

and vanaspati ghee.
Groundnut is predominantly self-pollinated crop.
Peg which later swells to become the pod.
Groundnut is raised mostly as rainfed Kharif crop.
The application of 500 kg gypsum / ha at the pegging stage will

enhance pod formation.
Safe moisture content is not more than - 5 %
Damp nuts of stored will ferment and allow the development of

poisonous moulds
Ex:- Aspergillus falvus - produce Aflatoxin in Kernels
Indian mustard - Brassica Juncea - commonly called as rai /

raya/ laha
Origin of B.juncea - China
Taramira – is native to - North Africa & Europe
Oil content of rape seed & mustard - 30 – 48 %
India occupies first position w.r.t. Area & production.
Sesamum Primary center of origin. - Africa India ranks first.UP

ranks first
Linseed MP ranks first
Castor India ranks first AP ranks first
Saf flower MH ranks first
26
Sunflower Native – USA Country _ Russia
Niger State – MP Country _ India
Sugarcane UP have largest acres under sugarcane (57%) Yield/ha

- TN
Ek sali - Dec – Feb -MH
Oct - Nov - AP
Adsali - July - Aug - 18-month crop
Water requirement - 200 – 300 cm
Cotton
AICRP on cotton – 1967, Short staple - 9.5 mm – 25.4 mm
Medium staple - 13mm – 40mm
Long staple - 25.4mm – 63mm
The group now recognized in India is
Superior long staple - 27mm & above
Long staple - 24.5 – 26
Superior medium staple - 22 – 24
Medium staple - 20- 21.5
Short staple - <19
First co-operative cotton sales society was opened at Gadag in

Mysore in 1917.
1 bale = 170 kg
Staple length classification
upto 1961 – 62 after 1961 – 62
Long 24 & above 24 &

above
Medium 18 –21 20 – 24
Short 17 & below 19 & below
Tobacco
India ranks 3 r d after USA & China
AP ranks first
27
Central Tobacco Committee - 1945
Topping & Suckering
Removal of flower head alone/ along with some of the top leaves
of the plant is known as topping.
After topping, the axillary buds grow and their removal is known
as Suckering.
Banana: State - TN Desuckering - removal of daughter suckers.
Mango:
Veneer grafting has been found to be best method of mango

propagation.
The graft joint should be at least 15cm above the ground.
The application of Ethrel (200 ppm) from September onwards has

been found to induce flowering in Mango in Karnataka by the
Indian Institute of Horticultural Research.
Harvesting - June to Aug in Northern India.
Guava UP has largest area L – 49 (Allahabad safeda) - seedless

variety
Pomegranate _ MH
Avocado - rich in protein & Fat
Apple Rootstock Use M. IX dwarfing rootstock for propagating

dwarf apple trees.
- Malling – Merton - rootstocks are recommended where
Vegetables
Daily minimum requirement of veg - 284 g/ day / head
Veg gardens are classified into 6 types.
Spices
King of spices - pepper
Queen of spices - cardamom
Fruits of cardamom - small trilocular capsules.
Hoshomin the queen of China first introduced sericulture in China
Outbreak of pebrine disease - 1857 to 1895
28
The cocoons of erisilkworm cannot be ruled as they produce
cocoon with small opening.
Entomology (General Agriculture)
• Per hectare consumption of pesticides in India – 440 gm/ha
• Pesticides consumption is maximum in – Andhra Pradesh

(19%)
• Per hectare consumption is maximum in – Tamil Nadu
• Consumption of pesticides in India
1994-95 (metric tons)
Imported 6266
Indigenous 55191
Total 61357
Maximum consumption of pesticides
Imported – Carbaryl followed by Chlorpyriphos
Indigenous – B H C followed by Monocropophos & Endosulfon
Export of Agro Chemicals:
• Maximum (in terms of Rupees) – Cypermethrin followed by

Endosulfon, Aluminium Phosphide & Lindane.
• The top Agro-business company – Novartis (Ciba + Sandoz)
• Production of Agro-Chemicals – 1995-96 (‘000 tons)
B H C - 25
Monocrotophos - 9
Endosulfon - 6.8
Total Production of pesticides in India – 88,890 tons (1994-95)
82,000 tons (1995-96)
No. of pesticides registered in India – 143 (as on 31.3.95)
No. of Technical grade pesticides manufactured in India – 66
Pigeon Pea: - 2nd most important pulses after Chickpea.
Origin – India Maximum area and Production – M H
Groundnut: - Critical stage  Pegging Origin – Brazil

29
Rice: - Area -43.2 million hectare
Production – 82 mt Origin – Hindustan
India ranks first in area and 2 n d in production
Maximum area and production – West Bengal
Rice grain in known as – caryopsis
Rice is short day plant
Dapog method – Introduced from Philiphines 30-40 m² area is

needed
Nitrification inhibitors – N-serve, ST, DCA
Slow release N fertilizers – S coated/neem coated/Lac coated –

useful
Critical stage – Tillering to flowering
Water requirement – 100-120 cm
Herbicides – Propanil @ 1-1.5 kg/ha Butachlon @ 1-2 kg/ha
Father of Hybrid rice – Prof. Long Ping Yuan
First rice hybrid  COH R-1/MGR-1
WHEAT:
Bread wheat –T.Aestivum
Club wheat – Tritium compactum
Macaroni wheat -T.durum
Einkorn wheat – T. monococcum
Emmer wheat -T.dicoccum
India – area -25 mha
Production -65 mt
India is 2 n d largest producer only after China
Wheat is World’s leading cereal
Maximum area & production of wheat – Uttar Pradesh
Critical stage – CRI stage
Operations
Topping & Suckering - Tobacco

30
Nipping - Gram (Bengal gram)
Tripping - Lucerne (Alfalfa)
Xanthomonas
Bacterial Blight of rice Xanthomonas Oryzae oryzae
Bacterial leaf streak of rice Xanthomonas oryzae oryzicola
Bacterial blight of cowpea Xanthomonas axonopodis

vignicola
Citrus canker Xanthomonas oxonopodis citri
Black rot of crucifers Xanthomonas Campestris

Campestris
Sugarcane gummosis Xanthomonas axonopodis

vascularum
Angular leaf spot of cotton Xanthomonas axonopodis

malvacearum
Leaf spot & Blight of beans Xanthomonas axonopodis phaseoli
Leaf spot of Tomato Xanthomonas axonopodis

Vesicatoria
Leaf spot of red gram Xanthomonas campestries cajani
Leaf spot of Bajra Xanthomonas campestris

annamalaiensis
Leaf blotch of Bajra Xanthomonas campestris Penniseti
Bacterial blight of Banana Xanthomonas campestris

musarum
Leaf spot of pomegranate Xanthomonas axonopodis punicae
Leaf spot of cluster bean Xanthomonas compestris

cyamopsidis
Bacterial pustule of soybean Xanthomonas axonopodis

phaseoli - sojens
Bacterial bllight of sesamum Xanthomonas campestris sesami
Pseudomonas
Brown rot of potato Ralstonia solanacearum (= pseudomonas

solanacearum )
Bacterial wilt of Brinjal Ralstonia solanacearum
31
Bacterial wilt of Tomato Ralstonia solanacearum
Moko disease of Banana Ralstonia solanacearum
Wild fire of tobacco pseudomonas syringae tabaci
Bacterial stalk rot of maize pseudomonas lapsa
Leaf stripe of sorghum pseudomonas lapsa
Leaf spot of mango pseudomonas mongiferae indicae
Angular leafspot of tobacco pseudomonas anguluta
Leaf spot of grape pseudomonas viticola
Erwinia
Stalk rot of maize Enterobacter dissolvens ( = Erwinia

dissolvens )
soft rot of vegetable Erwinia caratovora caratovora
fire blight of apple Erwinia amylovora
Black leg of potato Erwinia caratovora

abroseptica
Clavibacter
Yellow ear of wheat Rathayibacter tritici
Ring rot of potato Clavibacter michiganensis

spidonicum
Stem & fruit canker of tomato Clavibacter

michiganensis michiganensis
Agrobacterium
Crown gall of stone fruits Agrobacterium tumefacines
Streptomyces
Potato scab streptomyces scabis
Herbicides
2-4 DB - can be used in pulse crops
Propanil - selective contact herbicide (used in Rice)
Paraquat - non-selective contact herbicide used in non-cropped

areas.
Glyphosate - non-selective translocated herbicide
32
Rice - propanil, 2-4 D, Butachlor
Wheat - Isoproturon, sulfosulfuron, clodinofos
Weight of top 15 cm soil  2.25 x 10kg/ha
STATISTICS
• Probability of an event  any number lying between  0-1
• Positive Binomial distribution – Variance< mean
• Negative Binomial distribution – Variance> mean
• Binomial distribution  variance < mean
• Poisson distribution  variance = mean
• Normal distribution  mean, median & mode are equal
(Coincide at a single point)
• Limiting value of correlation coefficient  -1 to =1
• Limiting value of multiple co-relation coefficient  0 to 1
S.E = ------
√n
CV = ---------- x 100
• CRD (completely randomized block design) is mostly used for

lab experiments.
Nipping: - is the process of plucking the apical buds of the crop

at 30-40 DAS. It is done in Gram safflower, which promotes
lateral branching, more flowers & pod yield.
No. of soil orders – 12
Short day plants - soyabean, s/c, rice, tobacco
LDP - wheat, oats, sugarcane, raddish, lettuce
Day neutral - tomato, ‘bulk wheat ‘ , maize & sun flower
True seeds of s/c are called as FLUFF
Artificial s/c ripeners – polaris, sodium metasylicate, cycoul.

33
TMO - technology mission on oilseeds -May 1986
(mha)
• ultimate irrigation potential - 148
• irrigation potential created - 92
• Irrigation potential utilized - 82
• Net irrigated area - 55
• Irrigated area (%) - 35 %
• Igneous rocks - granite , Basalt
• Sedimentary rocks - limestone, quartz, sandstone shale,

conglomerate
• Metamorphic rocks - gneiss, quartz, marble, slate
1. True/particle density - 2.5 - 2.7 g/cc
2. Apparent/bulk density - 1.4 - 1.8 g/cc
3. First hybrid rice – WHR – 1/ MGR –1 (1994)
4. Density of water is highest at - 4ºc ( 1.02 g/cc )
5. 1959 – 60  Urea was first produced at Sindri ( Bihar)
6. ICPH – 8  first pigeon pea hybrid
7. 1 km² = 100 ha
8. 1 ft³ = 28.32 lbs
9. 1 ban = 10⁶ dynes/cm² = 0.1 Mpa
10. C.N ratio  0.M = 10:1
11. Indian soils = 14 :1
12. Most of Indian soils are deficit in N & contains about –

0.05%
13. Taking in to account the total land resources ( 328

mha) , the availability of land / head in India = 0.58 ha
14. Australia - 59 ha
• Graded bunding - if rainfall is - 780 cm
• Zing terracing - 3- 10% slope

34
• Bench terracing - 6-33% slope
• 1871 - Department of Agriculture
• 1963 - N S C
• 1972 - I C R I S A T
• 1995 - Institutional Village Level Programme
• 1998 - National Agricultural Technology Project
• 1976 - N C A (National commission on

Agriculture)
• 1926 - R C A (Royal Commission on Agriculture)
• Project Directors - 10
• A I C R P - 78
• N R C - 10
• National Bureaus - 4
During 2001-02
1. GDP (Agricultural Share) 25.00% (27.00%)
2. (Exports) 16.18% (15.30%)
3. Distribution of certified seeds – 100 lakh tons
Cloud Seeding :
Silver iodide – cold clouds
Sodium Chloride – Warm
• Crumb and granular structure (Spheroidal) of soil are

considered as favourable to plant growth.
• Percentage of forest area to geographical area is highest in

Japan (69%), while that of India is 22%
• Water erosion: 3 forms, sheet, Rill, Gully erosion
• Wind erosion: There are 3 types of soil movement
Particle Size
35
1) Saltation 0.1-0.55 mm in diameter – Major process
2) Suspension < 0.1 mm
3) Surface creep > 0.5 mm
• DAP – 18% N, 46% P2O5 OR 16% N 48% P2O5
• CAN – 25-28% N
• Ammonium nitrate – 33-35 % N – It is explosive
Statistics (1994-95)
Geographical area - 328.73 mha
Forests - 68.39 mha (22.40%)
Net area sown - 142.82 mha
Gross area sown - 188.15 mha
Cropping intensity - 131.70 %
Net irrigated area - 55 mha
Gross irrigated area - 82 mha
Fertilizers: N P K Total
10.3 mt 2.97 mt 1.02 mt 14.3 mt
Average haˉ² consumption of fertilizers
India - 86 kg/ha
World Avg. - 86 kg/ha
Punjab - 158 kg/ha  (Highest with respect to states

excluding UTs (Union Territories))
Netherlands - 542 kg/ha
Gross capital formation in Agriculture – 9.4 %
• Uttar Pradesh – Contributes maximum food grain production

(42 mt) and has maximum area and production of wheat,
maize, sugar cane, potato, mango
• West Bengal – has maximum area and production of Rice,

Jute and Mesta
• Maharashtra – has maximum area and production of warse

cereals, jowar, pigeon pea and cotton
36
• Madhya Pradesh – maximum area and production of pulses,
chickpea, oilseeds and soyabean
Groundnut  highest area – Andhra Pradesh
Production – Gujarat
Sugarcane  area & production – West Bengal
Productivity – Tamil Nadu
Rice and Wheat – Productivity is highest in Punjab
Water requirement – Rice – 100-120 cm
Sugarcane - 200-300 cm
Sugarcane
• Origin - Thincane - India
 Thickcane - New Guinea
• Area – 4mha
• Production – 279 mt
• Seed rate – 30.35 thousand setts 3 buded 2 buded – 75,000

1 single – 1,25,000
• Herbicides – 2-4 D (75-80 gt)
Atrazine
• Brix nad refactometer – 17-18 ideal stage for harvest
GENERAL
• Fibrinogen is the precursor of Fibrio
• Fertilizin is an (hormone) chemical substance produced by the

egg during fertilization which attract the sperm
• First geneticist who had received Nobel Prize – T H Morgan
• Agroclimate Zones - 15
• Agroecological Zones - 21
• Agroclimatic regions - 126
• Fobrinogen - Fibrin
• Trypsinogen - Trypsin
37
• First enzyme crystalized – urease – by Sumner
• Metallovitamin – B 1 2 (Cobalamine)
• First aromatic hybrid Rice – Pusa basmati – 1
• First Basmati – Pusa RH – 10
• Stomata less (Astomatal) plant – potamogaton & submerged

plants
• Central molecule controlling cell division aquatic plant – cycline
• Father of Physiology – Stephan Hales
• Pollination by bats – Chiropterophylly
• Most of the Indian soils are deficit in – Nitorgen and Zn
• India is the largest producer of Mango, Banana, Sapota and

Cauliflower
• Elements absorbed in complex form  Na
• Plant uptake maximum amount of  K from soil amount all

elements (Luxury consumption)
• Indian soils are usually poor in – OM & nitrogen
• White Revolution - Milk
• Blue Revolution - Fishery
• Round Revolution - Potato
• Silver Revolution - Eggs & Poultry
• Brown Revolution - Biomass (fertilizer production)
• Orange Revolution - Onion
• Yellow Revolution - Oilseeds
• Green Revolution - Wheat & Rice
• Grey Revolution - I T in Agriculture
• Fertilizer having explosive nature – Ammonium nitrate
• 50 % of Indian soils are deficit in Zn(among micro nutrients)
• Neutral fertilizer – CAN – Calcium Ammonium Nitrate
Crop State (%)

38
Sugarcane West Bengal (51.00)
Tobacco Andhra Pradesh (48.00)
Potato Uttar Pradesh (33.60)
Jute West Bengal (60.00)
Coconut Kerala (68.30)
Rubber Kerala (92.80)
Cashew Kerala (67.40)
Tea West Bengal
Coffee Kerala
Onion Maharashtra (18.50)
Chillies Andhra Pradesh (26.90)
Coriander Andhra Pradesh (36.00)
Weed Control
• The crops like sudangrass, sorghum and cowpea are good

competitors while crops like linseed, groundnut and lentil are
poor competitors
• Prickly pear – opuntia spp
• Water hyacinth – Eichhornia crassipes
• Grass carp – feed on guatic weeds
• Eradication of prickly pear by using the cochineal insects

Doctylopius tomentosus in Maharashtra and Tamil Nadu is best
example of Biological Control in India
• Parthenium - Compositae family
• Cyperus - Cyperaccae
• Echinochloa - Graminae
• Orobanchae - Orobanchaceae
• Argemone mexicana – Papaveraccae
• Striga - Scrophulariaceae
39

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Abid Hussain, MSc, Horticulture, abid.tnau@gmail.

WEATHER AND CROPS

• The areas of heavy rainfall exist in the windward side of

• C V is 60-80 % in Western Rajasthan.

2.Montmorillonite: - 2:1 (silica to aluminia)

- Held together through weak oxygen linkages

3. Illite: - 15 % of silica in silica sheet is replaced by

Principle minerals of earthcrust: -

Minerals approximate (%)

Clay CEC (me / 100g)

• Soil having >15% ESP - Alkali soil

• C: N ratio of O.M.  10:1

• Average value of C: N ratio of Indian Soils - 14:1

• Micro flora - Bacteria, Actinomycetes, Fungi & Algae

• Micro fauna - protozoa & nematodes

• Protozoa are unicellular organisms.

Land capability classification

Class - I - productive & suitable for intensive cropping.

II - used for raising many cultivated crops.

III - need careful management

IV - the cultivation of crop is restricted to once in 3-4

V - restrict their use to pasture/adoptable tree species.

VI - restricted to pasture & silviculture.

VII - restrict their use for grazing.

VIII - use is restricted to recreation / wild life.

• This is the largest & most important soil group of India

1. Khadar - newer alluvium of sandy.

2. Bhangar - older alluvium of more clayey.

• Maharastra has maximum black soil area in India.

• Tamil Nadu has maximum red soil area in India. (2/3 r d of

• Clay fraction is rich in Kaolinite.

• Colour is due to Hydration of the ferric oxide in them.

Most predominant component of the desert sand is quartz

Acid tolerant crops: -

Cereals Legumes miscellaneous

Maize Groundnut Sugarcane

Rice Soybean Potato

Wheat Berseem Tea

Saline & alkali soils:

• 7 m ha area has gone out of cultivation.

• Saline soils are also called as- white alkali soils

• Sodic soils are also called as - black alkali soils

• Acid soils - lime

• Basic soils - gypsum

• Saline soils - sulphuric pyrite and also gypsum

• Average annual rainfall is about 120 cm (India) and that of global

• Water source of the country - 178 M Ha M

• Ground water runoff is roughly assessed at about - 45 mham

• The utilizable flow has been estimated to be 66.6 mham

• Ground water recharge in the country as a whole works out

• Total volume of surface water presently utilized for irrigation is

• The total volume of ground water presently used for irrigation is

• The present total utilization of surface water for irrigation may

• Total geographical area - 328 mha, the land use statistics is

• Technical committee in co-ordination of agricultural

• Arable land = net area sown + current of allows + other of

• Potential land available = available land+ cultivable waste

Net area sown

• % Potential land exploited = --------------------- x 100

Net area sown

% Arable land = ------------------- x100

• 65.9 mha (21.6 %)