Chapter 2

Equations. Functions of one variable.

Complex numbers
The roots of the gen-
√ eral quadratic equation.
−b ± b2 − 4ac
2.1 ax2 + bx + c = 0 ⇐⇒ x1,2 = They are real provided
2a b2 ≥ 4ac (assuming that
a, b, and c are real).

If x1 and x2 are the roots of x2 + px + q = 0,

2.2 then Viète’s rule.
x1 + x2 = −p, x1 x2 = q
The general cubic
2.3 ax3 + bx2 + cx + d = 0
equation.

(2.3) reduces to the form

2.4 x3 + px + q = 0 (2.4) if x in (2.3) is
replaced by x − b/3a.

x3 + px + q = 0 with Δ = 4p3 + 27q 2 has

• three different real roots if Δ < 0; Classification of the
2.5 • three real roots, at least two of which are roots of (2.4) (assuming
equal, if Δ = 0; that p and q are real).

• one real and two complex roots if Δ > 0.

Cardano’s formulas
The solutions of x3 + px + q = 0 are for the roots of a cubic
x1 = u + v, x2 = ωu + ω 2 v, and x3 = ω 2 u + ωv, equation. i is the imagi-
√ nary unit (see (2.75))
where ω = − 12 + 2i 3, and and ω is a complex third
  root of 1 (see (2.88)).
2.6 3 q 1 4p3 + 27q 2
u= − + (If complex numbers be-
2 2 27 come involved, the cube
  roots must be chosen so
3 q 1 4p3 + 27q 2 that 3uv = −p. Don’t
v= − −
2 2 27 try to use these formulas
unless you have to!)
8

If x1 , x2 , and x3 are the roots of the equation

x3 + px2 + qx + r = 0, then
2.7 x1 + x2 + x3 = −p Useful relations.
x1 x2 + x1 x3 + x2 x3 = q
x1 x2 x3 = −r

A polynomial of degree
2.8 P (x) = an xn + an−1 xn−1 + · · · + a1 x + a0
n. (an = 0.)

For the polynomial P (x) in (2.8) there exist The fundamental

constants x1 , x2 , . . . , xn (real or complex) such theorem of algebra.
2.9 that x1 , . . . , xn are called
zeros of P (x) and roots
P (x) = an (x − x1 ) · · · (x − xn ) of P (x) = 0.

an−1
x1 + x2 + · · · + xn = − Relations between the
an
 an−2 roots and the coefficients
2.10 x1 x2 + x1 x3 + · · · + xn−1 xn = xi xj = of P (x) = 0, where P (x)
an
i<j is defined in (2.8). (Gen-
a0
x1 x2 · · · xn = (−1)n eralizes (2.2) and (2.7).)
an

If an−1 , . . . , a1 , a0 are all integers, then any Any integer solutions of

integer root of the equation x3 + 6x2 − x − 6 = 0
2.11 must divide −6. (In this
xn + an−1 xn−1 + · · · + a1 x + a0 = 0 case the roots are ±1
and −6.)
must divide a0 .

Let k be the number of changes of sign in the

sequence of coefficients an , an−1 , . . . , a1 , a0
in (2.8). The number of positive real roots of
2.12 P (x) = 0, counting the multiplicities of the Descartes’s rule of signs.
roots, is k or k minus a positive even number.
If k = 1, the equation has exactly one positive
real root.

The graph of the equation

Ax2 + Bxy + Cy 2 + Dx + Ey + F = 0
is
• an ellipse, a point or empty if 4AC > B 2 ; Classification of conics.
2.13
• a parabola, a line, two parallel lines, or A, B, C not all 0.
empty if 4AC = B 2 ;
• a hyperbola or two intersecting lines if
4AC < B 2 .
 9

Transforms the equa-

    tion in (2.13) into a
x = x cos θ − y sin θ, y = x sin θ + y cos θ
2.14 quadratic equation in
with cot 2θ = (A − C)/B x and y  , where the
coefficient of x y  is 0.

 The (Euclidean) distance

2.15 d= (x2 − x1 )2 + (y2 − y1 )2 between the points
(x1 , y1 ) and (x2 , y2 ).

Circle with center at

2.16 (x − x0 )2 + (y − y0 )2 = r2
(x0 , y0 ) and radius r.

(x − x0 )2 (y − y0 )2 Ellipse with center at

2.17 + =1 (x0 , y0 ) and axes parallel
a2 b2 to the coordinate axes.

y y
(x, y) (x, y)
r b
y0 y0 a Graphs of (2.16) and
2.18
(2.17).

x0 x x0 x

(x − x0 )2 (y − y0 )2 Hyperbola with center at

2.19 − = ±1 (x0 , y0 ) and axes parallel
a2 b2 to the coordinate axes.

Asymptotes for (2.19): Formulas for asymp-

2.20 b totes of the hyperbolas
y − y0 = ± (x − x0 ) in (2.19).
a
y y
Hyperbolas with asymp-
totes, illustrating (2.19)
b b and (2.20), correspond-
y0 a y0 a
2.21 ing to + and − in
(2.19), respectively. The
two hyperbolas have the
x0 x x0 x same asymptotes.

Parabola with vertex

2.22 y − y0 = a(x − x0 )2 , a = 0 (x0 , y0 ) and axis parallel
to the y-axis.

Parabola with vertex

2.23 x − x0 = a(y − y0 )2 , a = 0 (x0 , y0 ) and axis parallel
to the x-axis.
10

y y

Parabolas illustrating
y0
2.24 (2.22) and (2.23) with
y0 a > 0.

x0 x x0 x

A function f is
• increasing if
x1 < x2 ⇒ f (x1 ) ≤ f (x2 )
• strictly increasing if
x1 < x2 ⇒ f (x1 ) < f (x2 )
• decreasing if
x1 < x2 ⇒ f (x1 ) ≥ f (x2 )
• strictly decreasing if
x1 < x2 ⇒ f (x1 ) > f (x2 )
2.25 Properties of functions.
• even if f (x) = f (−x) for all x
• odd if f (x) = −f (−x) for all x
• symmetric about the line x = a if
f (a + x) = f (a − x) for all x
• symmetric about the point (a, 0) if
f (a − x) = −f (a + x) for all x
• periodic (with period k) if there exists a
number k > 0 such that
f (x + k) = f (x) for all x

• If y = f (x) is replaced by y = f (x) + c, the

graph is moved upwards by c units if c > 0
(downwards if c is negative).
• If y = f (x) is replaced by y = f (x + c), the
graph is moved c units to the left if c > 0 (to
the right if c is negative). Shifting the graph of
2.26
y = f (x).
• If y = f (x) is replaced by y = cf (x), the
graph is stretched vertically if c > 0 (stretch-
ed vertically and reflected about the x-axis
if c is negative).
• If y = f (x) is replaced by y = f (−x), the
graph is reflected about the y-axis.
 11

y y
Graphs of increasing
2.27 and strictly increasing
functions.
x x

y y
Graphs of decreasing
2.28 and strictly decreasing
functions.
x x

y y y
Graphs of even and odd
functions, and of a func-
2.29
x tion symmetric about
x=a
x = a.
x x

y y Graphs of a function
k
symmetric about the
2.30 point (a, 0) and of a
(a, 0) x
function periodic with
x period k.

y = ax + b is a nonvertical asymptote for the

curve y = f (x) if
 
2.31 lim f (x) − (ax + b) = 0 Definition of a nonverti-
x→∞
cal asymptote.
or
 
lim f (x) − (ax + b) = 0
x→−∞

y = f (x)

y = ax + b is an
y = ax + b
2.32 asymptote for the curve
f (x) − (ax + b) y = f (x).

x
x
12

How to find a nonvertical asymptote for the

curve y = f (x) as x → ∞:
  Method for finding non-
• Examine lim f (x)/x . If the limit does not
x→∞ vertical asymptotes for
exist, there is no asymptote as x → ∞. a curve y = f (x) as
 
• If lim f (x)/x = a, examine the limit x → ∞. Replacing
2.33

x→∞  x → ∞ by x → −∞
lim f (x) − ax . If this limit does not exist, gives a method for find-
x→∞
the curve has no asymptote as x → ∞. ing nonvertical asymp-
  totes as x → −∞.
• If lim f (x) − ax = b, then y = ax + b is an
x→∞
asymptote for the curve y = f (x) as x → ∞.

Newton’s approxima-
To find an approximate root of f (x) = 0, define
tion method. (A rule of
xn for n = 1, 2, . . . , by thumb says that, to ob-
f (xn ) tain an approximation
2.34 xn+1 = xn − that is correct to n deci-
f  (xn ) mal places, use Newton’s
If x0 is close to an actual root x∗ , the sequence method until it gives the
same n decimal places
{xn } will usually converge rapidly to that root.
twice in a row.)

Illustration of Newton’s
approximation method.
The tangent to the
2.35
x∗ graph of f at (xn , f (xn ))
xn xn+1 x intersects the x-axis at
x = xn+1 .
y = f (x)

Suppose in (2.34) that f (x∗ ) = 0, f  (x∗ ) = 0,

and that f  (x∗ ) exists and is continuous in a Sufficient conditions for
2.36 neighbourhood of x∗ . Then there exists a δ > 0 convergence of Newton’s
such that the sequence {xn } in (2.34) converges method.
to x∗ when x0 ∈ (x∗ − δ, x∗ + δ).

Suppose in (2.34) that f is twice differentiable

with f (x∗ ) = 0 and f  (x∗ ) = 0. Suppose fur-
ther that there exist a K > 0 and a δ > 0 such
that for all x in (x∗ − δ, x∗ + δ),
A precise estimation of
2.37 |f (x)f  (x)| the accuracy of Newton’s
≤ K|x − x∗ | < 1
f  (x)2 method.
Then if x0 ∈ (x∗ − δ, x∗ + δ), the sequence {xn }
in (2.34) converges to x∗ and
n
|xn − x∗ | ≤ (δK)2 /K
 13

The equation for the

2.38 y − f (x1 ) = f  (x1 )(x − x1 ) tangent to y = f (x) at
(x1 , f (x1 )).

1 The equation for the

2.39 y − f (x1 ) = − 
(x − x1 ) normal to y = f (x) at
f (x1 ) (x1 , f (x1 )).
y
normal tangent

y = f (x) The tangent and the

2.40 normal to y = f (x) at
(x1 , f (x1 )).

x1 x

(i) ar · as = ar+s (ii) (ar )s = ars Rules for powers. (r and

r r r
2.41 (iii) (ab) = a b (iv) ar /as = ar−s s are arbitrary real num-
 a r ar 1 bers, a and b are positive
(v) = r (vi) a−r = r real numbers.)
b b a

n
1
• e = lim 1+ = 2.718281828459 . . . Important definitions
n→∞ n
 x n and results. See (8.23)
2.42 • ex = lim 1 + for another formula for
n→∞ n
 an n ex .
• lim an = a ⇒ lim 1 + = ea
n→∞ n→∞ n
Definition of the natural
2.43 eln x = x
logarithm.
y
ex

The graphs of y = ex
ln x and y = ln x are sym-
2.44
1 metric about the line
y = x.
1 x

x
ln(xy) = ln x + ln y; ln = ln x − ln y Rules for the natural
y
2.45 logarithm function.
1
ln xp = p ln x; ln = − ln x (x and y are positive.)
x
Definition of the loga-
2.46 aloga x = x (a > 0, a = 1)
rithm to the base a.
14

ln x
loga x = ; loga b · logb a = 1 Logarithms with differ-
2.47 ln a
ent bases.
loge x = ln x; log10 x = log10 e · ln x

loga (xy) = loga x + loga y

x
2.48 loga = loga x − loga y Rules for logarithms.
y (x and y are positive.)
1
loga xp = p loga x, loga = − loga x
x

◦
π 180 Relationship between de-
2.49 1◦ = rad, 1 rad =
180 π grees and radians (rad).

90◦
60◦
135◦ π/2 45◦
π/3
3π/4 π/4 30◦
π/6
Relations between de-
2.50 180◦ π 0 0◦
grees and radians.

3π/2

270◦

cot x

Definitions of the basic

trigonometric functions.
2.51 x is the length of the
1 tan x arc, and also the radian
sin x x
measure of the angle.

cos x

y The graphs of y = sin x

(—) and y = cos x (- - -).
y = cos x y = sin x The functions sin and
2.52 x cos are periodic with
− 3π
2
−π − π2 π
2 π 3π
2
period 2π:
sin(x + 2π) = sin x,
cos(x + 2π) = cos x.

sin x cos x 1 Definition of the tangent

2.53 tan x = , cot x = =
cos x sin x tan x and cotangent functions.
 15

y
y = cot x y = tan x

The graphs of y = tan x

(—) and y = cot x (- - -).
The functions tan and
− 3π −π − π2 π
π 3π
2.54 2 2 2 cot are periodic with
x period π:
tan(x + π) = tan x,
cot(x + π) = cot x.

π π π π
x 0 6
= 30◦ 4
= 45◦ 3
= 60◦ 2
= 90◦

1 1
√ 1
√
sin x 0 2 2
2 2
3 1
1
√ 1
√ 1 Special values of the
2.55 cos x 1 2
3 2
2 2
0
√ √ trigonometric functions.
1
tan x 0 3
3 1 3 ∗
√ 1
√
cot x ∗ 3 1 3
3 0

* not defined

3π 3π
x 4
= 135◦ π = 180◦ 2
= 270◦ 2π = 360◦

1
√
sin x 2
2 0 −1 0
1
√
2.56 cos x −2 2 −1 0 1
tan x −1 0 ∗ 0
cot x −1 ∗ 0 ∗

* not defined

sin ax
2.57 lim =a An important limit.
x→0 x
Trigonometric formulas.
2 2 (For series expansions of
2.58 sin x + cos x = 1
trigonometric functions,
see Chapter 8.)

1 1
2.59 tan2 x = − 1, cot2 x = −1
cos2 x sin2 x

cos(x + y) = cos x cos y − sin x sin y

cos(x − y) = cos x cos y + sin x sin y
2.60
sin(x + y) = sin x cos y + cos x sin y
sin(x − y) = sin x cos y − cos x sin y
16

tan x + tan y
tan(x + y) =
1 − tan x tan y
2.61 Trigonometric formulas.
tan x − tan y
tan(x − y) =
1 + tan x tan y

cos 2x = 2 cos2 x − 1 = 1 − 2 sin2 x

2.62
sin 2x = 2 sin x cos x

x 1 − cos x x 1 + cos x
2.63 sin2 = , cos2 =
2 2 2 2
x+y x−y
cos x + cos y = 2 cos cos
2.64 2 2
x+y x−y
cos x − cos y = −2 sin sin
2 2
x+y x−y
sin x + sin y = 2 sin cos
2.65 2 2
x+y x−y
sin x − sin y = 2 cos sin
2 2
π π
y = arcsin x ⇔ x = sin y, x ∈ [−1, 1], y ∈ [− , ]
2 2
y = arccos x ⇔ x = cos y, x ∈ [−1, 1], y ∈ [0, π] Definitions of the inverse
2.66 π π trigonometric functions.
y = arctan x ⇔ x = tan y, x ∈ R, y ∈ (− , )
2 2
y = arccot x ⇔ x = cot y, x ∈ R, y ∈ (0, π)
y y π

y = arcsin x y = arccos x
π π
2 2 Graphs of the inverse
trigonometric functions
2.67
−1 1
y = arcsin x and y =
arccos x.
x −1 1x

− π2

y π

y = arccot x
π Graphs of the inverse
2
trigonometric functions
2.68
y = arctan x and y =
1
arccot x.
x
y = arctan x

− π2
 17

arcsin x = sin−1 x, arccos x = cos−1 x Alternative notation for

2.69 the inverse trigonometric
arctan x = tan−1 x, arccot x = cot−1 x functions.

arcsin(−x) = − arcsin x
arccos(−x) = π − arccos x
arctan(−x) = arctan x
arccot(−x) = π − arccot x
π
2.70 arcsin x + arccos x = Properties of the inverse
2 trigonometric functions.
π
arctan x + arccot x =
2
1 π
arctan = − arctan x, x > 0
x 2
1 π
arctan = − − arctan x, x < 0
x 2

ex − e−x ex + e−x Hyperbolic sine and

2.71 sinh x = , cosh x =
2 2 cosine.

y = cosh x y

1
Graphs of the hyperbolic
2.72 functions y = sinh x and
1 x
y = cosh x.

y = sinh x

cosh2 x − sinh2 x = 1
cosh(x + y) = cosh x cosh y + sinh x sinh y
Properties of hyperbolic
2.73 cosh 2x = cosh2 x + sinh2 x functions.
sinh(x + y) = sinh x cosh y + cosh x sinh y
sinh 2x = 2 sinh x cosh x

y = arsinh x ⇐⇒ x = sinh y
y = arcosh x, x ≥ 1 ⇐⇒ x = cosh y, y ≥ 0
 Definition of the inverse
2.74  
arsinh x = ln x + x2 + 1 hyperbolic functions.
  
arcosh x = ln x + x2 − 1 , x ≥ 1
18

Complex numbers

A complex number and

its conjugate. a, b ∈ R,
2.75 z = a + ib, z̄ = a − ib
and i2 = −1. i is called
the imaginary unit.

|z| is the modulus of

√ z = a + ib. Re(z) and
2.76 |z| = a2 + b2 , Re(z) = a, Im(z) = b
Im(z) are the real and
imaginary parts of z.

Imaginary axis
z = a + ib
b
|z|
Geometric representation
a
2.77 of a complex number
Real axis
and its conjugate.

z̄ = a − ib

• (a + ib) + (c + id) = (a + c) + i(b + d)

• (a + ib) − (c + id) = (a − c) + i(b − d) Addition, subtraction,
multiplication, and
2.78 • (a + ib)(c + id) = (ac − bd) + i(ad + bc) division of complex
a + ib 1   numbers.
• = 2 (ac + bd) + i(bc − ad)
c + id c + d2

|z̄1 | = |z1 |, z1 z̄1 = |z1 |2 , z1 + z2 = z̄1 + z̄2 , Basic rules. z1 and z2

2.79
|z1 z2 | = |z1 ||z2 |, |z1 + z2 | ≤ |z1 | + |z2 | are complex numbers.

The trigonometric or
z = a + ib = r(cos θ + i sin θ) = reiθ , where polar form of a complex
2.80 √ a b number. The angle θ is
r = |z| = a2 + b2 , cos θ = , sin θ = called the argument of z.
r r
See (2.84) for eiθ .

Imaginary axis a + ib = r(cos θ + i sin θ)

b
Geometric representa-
r
tion of the trigonomet-
2.81
θ ric form of a complex
a number.
Real axis
 19

If zk = rk (cos θk + i sin θk ), k = 1, 2, then

  Multiplication and di-
2.82 z1 z2 = r1 r2 cos(θ1 + θ2 ) + i sin(θ1 + θ2 ) vision on trigonometric
z1 r1   form.
= cos(θ1 − θ2 ) + i sin(θ1 − θ2 )
z2 r2

De Moivre’s formula,
2.83 (cos θ + i sin θ)n = cos nθ + i sin nθ
n = 0, 1, . . . .

If z = x + iy, then
ez = ex+iy = ex · eiy = ex (cos y + i sin y) The complex exponential
2.84
In particular, function.
eiy = cos y + i sin y

2.85 eπi = −1 A striking relationship.

ez̄ = ez , ez+2πi = ez , ez1 +z2 = ez1 ez2 , Rules for the complex
2.86 z1 −z2
e z1
= e /e z2 exponential function.

eiz + e−iz eiz − e−iz

2.87 cos z = , sin z = Euler’s formulas.
2 2i

If a = r(cos θ + i sin θ) = 0, then the equation

zn = a
has exactly n roots, namely nth roots of a complex
2.88
√  θ + 2kπ θ + 2kπ number, n = 1, 2, . . . .
zk = n r cos + i sin
n n
for k = 0, 1, . . . , n − 1.

References
Most of these formulas can be found in any calculus text, e.g. Edwards and Penney
(1998) or Sydsæter and Hammond (2005). For (2.3)–(2.12), see e.g. Turnbull (1952).
http://www.springer.com/978-3-540-26088-2