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The Electrical Power Systems Division The Underground distribution systems section Number: 3

Cables: Layingundergroundcablemethods: Undergroundcablescanbedirectlyburied,canbeput(pulled)inaconduitandburied(cable inaconduit)orcablesinconduitsencasedinconcrete,fig.1.7. Theyconsistofthreeessentialparts:theconductorfortransmittingelectricalpower,the insulationmediumrequiredtoinsulatetheconductorfromdirectcontactwithearthorother objectsandtheexternalprotectioncovertoprotectagainstmechanicaldamage,chemicalor electrochemicalattack,fig.1.7.Copperandaluminumconductorsarefoundinunderground distributioncables.Theconductorcanbesolidorstranded.Themostcommonlyusedinsulating materialsinthemediumvoltage(primary)rangearethecrosslinkedpolyethyleneandthe ethylenepropylenerubberwhichareratedforcontinuousoperationof90degC.Theconcentric neutralorshieldedtape(themetallicinsulationshield)isappliedontheinsulation semiconductingshield.Theconcentricneutraliswoundhelicallyandismadeofannealed uncoatedcopperwires,usually.Undertheconcentricneutral,anequalizingtape(annealed untinnedcoppertapes),eachisappliedinoppositedirectiontotheother.Thereareafewways andmaterialsthatareusedascablejackets.Briefly,theyaresleevedorencapsulated,the materialisPVCorlinearlowdensitypolyethylene(LLDPE).Certaincablesareusedwithout anyjackets.ThePVCcoveringofcablescomesasasleevedjacketandaseparatorbetween concentricneutralandthejacket.TheLLDPEcoveringcomeseitherasencapsulatedjacketor sleeved.WhenLLDPEsleevesareused,awaterblockingagentisusedtopreventthe longitudinaltravelofwaterinthespacebetwenthejacketandtheinsulationshield.Thesame agentcanbeusedwithencapsulatedjacketstofillthevoidsbetweenthejacketandtheneutral. Ingeneralforthesamesizecable,thesleevedcablesaremoreflexibleandiseasiertohandle thantheencapsulatedones.

Rubbers: Rubbermaterialscanbeclassifiedintovulcanizedrubber&syntheticrubbermaterials (elatomers). Vulcanizedrubber:rubberinitsnaturalformitisconsideredaninsulatingmaterial.Thedraw backisitspropertyofabsorbingmoisture.Theresultofthisdrawbackwouldbethelossofits insulatingproperty.Hardorvulcanizedrubberisproducedbymixingrubberwith30%sulphur, othersoftenersandantioxidationorothercompoundingagents.Theendresultisaninsulating materialwhichisrigid,resilientanddoesnotabsorbmoisture. Whenitcomestosyntheticrubbermaterials(elastomers)knownasrubbers,theycanbe classifiedinto:generalpurposesyntheticswhichhaverubberlikepropertiesandspecialpurpose syntheticswhichhavebetterpropertiesthanrubberwithrespecttofireandoilresisting properties.Thefourmaintypesare:butylrubber,siliconerubber,neopreneandstyrene. Rubbersarehydrocarbonpolymericmaterialssimilarinstructuretoplasticresins.Anelastomer isdefined,perASTM,asapolymericmaterialwhichatroomtemperaturecanbestretchedtoat leasttwiceitsoriginallengthanduponimmediatereleaseofthestressitwillreturnquicklyto approximatelyitsoriginallength.Certaintypesofplasticscanapproachtherubberlikestate (polyethylenes).Othershaveelastomergrades,forexampleolefins,styrenes,fluorplasticsand silicones. Butylrubber:Alsoreferredtoasisobutyleneisopreneelastomeriscopolymersofisobutylene

andabout1to3%isoprene.Itissimilarinmanywaystonaturalrubber.Ithasexcellent resistance,butitresistsweathering,thesunlightandchemicals.Thistypeofinsulation,in general,haslowermechanicalproperties(tensilestrength,resilience,abrasionresistanceand compressionset)thanotherelastomers.Ithasexcellentdielectricstrength,thusitcanbeused forcableinsulation,encapsulatingcompoundsandavarietyofelectricalapplications. Siliconerubber:isonememberofthefamilyofsiliconeelastomers.Theelastomersare polymerscomposedbasicallyofsiliconandoxygenatoms.Theycanbeclassifiedintogeneral purpose,lowtemperature,hightemperature,lowcompressionset,hightensilehightear,fluid resistant.Theyarethemoststableofallelastomers,theyhavegoodresistancetohighandlow temperatures,oilsandchemicals.Thesiliconerubberisusuallyalongchaindimethylsilicone whichcanbevulcanizedbycrosslinkingthelinearchainsandcanflowunderheatand pressure.Basically,itconsistsofalternatesiliconandoxygenatomswithtwomethylgroups attachedtoeachsiliconatom.Itresistsheat,mostchemicals(exceptstrongacidsandalkalies). Thedielectricstrengthis500volt/mil(20KVpermeter). Neoprene:alsoknownaschloroprene,itisthefirstcommercialsyntheticrubber.Itis chemically,structurallyandmechanicallysimilartonaturalrubber.Itresistsoils,chemicals, sunlight,weatheringandaging.Itisconsumedbyfirebutitisnoncombustible.Itisrelatively lowindielectricstrength. Styrenebutadieneelastomers:sometimescalled,BunaSarecopolymersofbutadieneand styrene.Thegradeswithstyreneover50%areconsideredplastics.Awiderangeofproperty gradesexistsbyvaryingtherelativeamountsofstyreneandbutadiene.Styrenecontentvaries fromaslowas9%toupto40%.Theyaresimilarinmanywaystothenaturalrubbers. Theinsulatingmaterialsusedwithcableshavethefollowingproperties:highinsulation resistance,highdielectricstrength,goodmechanicalproperties,itshouldresistchemicals surroundingitanditshouldbenonhygroscopic,i.e.,moistureandwaterresistant. PVC: PolyvinylChloride(PVC):itisapolymerderived,generally,fromacetylene.Itcanbeproduced indifferentgradesdependinguponthepolymerizationprocess.PVCisinferiortovulcanized rubberwithrespecttoelasticityandinsulationresistance.PVCwhenusedwithcableshastobe processedwithplasticizer.PVCcanbeclassifiedintogeneralpurpose,hardgradePVC(hasless amountofplacticizer)andheatresistingPVC. Polyethylenes: Thesethermoplasticresinsincludelowdensitypolyethylene(LDPE),linearlowdensity polyethylene(LLDPE),highdensitypolyethylenes(HDPE)andethylenecopolymers.The advantagestobegainedwithpolyethylenearelightweight,outstandingchemicalresistance, mechanicalresistanceandexcellentdielectricproperties.Thebasicpropertiesofpolyethylenes canbemodifiedwithabroadrangeoffillers,reinforcementsandchemicalmodifiers. Polyethylenesareconsideredeasytoprocess:injectionmolding,sheetfilmextrusion,coating extrusion,wireandcableextrusioncoating,blowmolding,rotationalmolding,pipeandtube extrusionandothers.Thebasicbuildingblocksofpolyethyleneare:hydrogenandcarbonatoms.

Theseatomsarecombinedtoformethylenemonomer,C2H4i.e.twocarbonatomsandfour hydrogenones.Inthepolymerizationprocess,thedoublebondconnectingthecarbonatomsis brokenandthesebondsreformwithotherethylenemoleculestoformlongmolecularchains. Highdensitypolyethyleneresinshavemolecularchainswithcomparativelyfewsidechain branches.Itscrystallinityisupto95%.Lowdensitypolyethyleneresinhascrystallinityfrom60 to70%.Linearlowdensitypolyethyleneresinshasbetween60and75%.Thedegreeof cristallinityisameasureofthedensityoftheresin.Withthehigherdensities,theheatsoftening point,resistancetogasandmoisturevapourpermeatingandstiffnessarehigh.Ontheother hand,increaseddensitywillresultinreductionofstresscrackingresistanceandlowtemperature toughness.TherangeofdensityforLLDPEresinsis0.915to0.940g/cm3,forLDPEresins 0.910to0.930g/cm3andHDPE0.941to0.965g/cm3. Electriccharacteristicsofcables: Theelectricalcharacteristicsofcables: theresistanceisgivenbyRac=Rdc(Ys+Yp);whereRacistheacresistance,Rdcisthedc resistance,YsisthecorrectionforskineffectandYpcorrectionforproximityeffect.The inductanceisgivenby.460log(GMD/GMR)=0.2ln(GMD/GMR)mH/Km,wheregmdisthe distancebetweenthecabecentrecoreandthepointwheretheinductanceistobecalculatedat &GMRistheeffectiveradiusoftheconductor=r(.7788). Theinsulationresistanceforasinglecorecableisgivenbythefollowing(r/2pil)(lnD/2r) whereristheresistivityorspecificresistanceofthedielectric,ristheradiusoftheconductor,l isthelengthofthecableandDisthediameterofthesheathorconentricneutral. Thecapacitanceincm/cmlengthisgivenby:e/(2lnD/d),wheredistheconductordiameter. Thisequationcanbewrittenas0.03888e/logD/dFarad/milelengthore(109/18lnD/d) Farad/meter,whereeisthedielectricconstantofthecableinsulationmaterial.Thestressata distancexfromtheaxisisgivenbyE/(xlnD/d),thestressismaximumattheconductorandis equalE/(rlnD/d)or2E/(dlnD/d),thestressattheleadsheathis2E/(DlnD/d);whereEisthe peakvoltageoftheconductor(potentialdifferencebetweenthecoreandthesheath).Itcanbe seenfromtheabovethattheratioofthestressattheconductortothatatthesheathisD/d. Therearetwomainmethodsbywhichamoreuniformdistributionofstressmaybeachieved:by theintroductionofintersheathsandwithlayersofinsulatingmaterialwithdifferentdielectric constant(e).Thesemethodsareprimarilyusedinhighvoltagecables. Foranumericalexampleregardingthecalculationofcableconstants:resistance,inductance (inductivereactance),capacitance(capacitivereactance)&insulationresistance,pleasereferto level1/lesson2/question25. Failuremodesincables: Themostcommonwaysoffailureincablesare:coring(ortracking)andthermalinstability.The firsthastheprogressivecoringstartingattheconductororthesheathandultimatelybridgesthe electrodes(conductor&sheath).Thesecondoccurswhenthepowerfactorincreasessorapidly withtheriseoftemperatureinsuchamannerthatasmallriseintemperatureincreasesthe dielectriclossesbyagreateramount.Thevoltagetobreakdownacertaininsulationdepends

uponmanyfactorssuchasdurationofapplication,shapeofelectrodes,temperature,pressure, thepresenceofmoistureandgaseousspaces. Forcrosslinkingofpolyethylenethereareafewmethodsinustoday:peroxidesystems, radiationandsilanebridgesformation.Thecuringoftheextrudedcablestakesplaceinairat ambienttemperatures,inahotwaterbathorinasteamroom.Thefailureincableswiththis insulatingmaterialcanbeattributedtothewaterabsorptionpropertyofXLPE.Whenthecables aresubjectedtostress(i.e.undervoltage)andwaterisontheoutsideorintheconductor, transparenttreelikeimperfectionsareformed.Thesewatertreesareinitiatedinvoidsor contaminantsinthebodyoftheinsulation.Someofthefactorsthatcontributetowatertree growthinextrudedinsulationarevoltagestress,water,contaminantsandimperfections, temperaturegradientandaging.Thestrandseal(theliquidfillingthespacesbetweenthestrands intheconductorarea)characteristicsare:highviscosityatoverloadtemperaturetoensurethat thestrandsealwillnotflowfromtheconductor,goodlowtemperatureproperties(i.e.compound fractureunderlowtemperaturewhilebendingthecableshouldnothappen),compatiblewith metalsoftheconductors&conductorssemiconductingshieldsandadheretoconductorovera broadrangeoftemperatures. Manholes: Whentheconcreteencaseddesignsareused,manholeshavetobeconstructedandshouldhave sufficientspacetocut,spliceandpullthecables.Theyshouldbestrongenoughtowithstandthe loadsabovethemwithoutcollapsing.Ingeneral,manholes,handholesandvaultsaretobe designedtosustainallexpectedloadswhichmaybeimposedonthestructure.Thevertical and/orhorizontaldesignloadsshallconsistofdeadload,liveloads,equipmentload,impact, loadduetowatertableorfrostandanyotherloadsexpectedtobeimposedonand/oradjacentto thestructure.Themanholesaregenerallybuiltofreinforcedconcreteorbrickandthecoversare madeofsteel.Theopeningleadingfromthestreettothemanholechamberiscalledthe chimneyorthroat.Anopeninghavingaminimumdiameterof32"isusuallyprovided.This openinghastobelargeenoughforamantoenteronaladderandalsotopasstheequipment neededforsplicingandtesting.Thepullingropeisattachedtothecablebymeansofawoven cablegrip,sometimescalledbasketgrip,orbymeansofaclevisoreye.Topreventinjurytothe cablebyscrapingonthemanholeframeorattheductopening,afeedingtube(guidingtube)is sometimesused.Toprotectthecablefromexcessivetensionduringpullingin,thecableis lubricatedwithacompatiblematerialtothejacket.Thecableisdrawnintotheductbymeansof awinchorcapstanThewinchisusuallymountedonatruckoraportablecablepullerlocated nearthemanholeortheriser(pole)conduit,atpullingend.Forcommonmanhole configurations,refertofig.1.8.

Dissipationfactor&powerfactorofacableinsulation: Thedissipationfactorortandisameasurementofthequalityoftheinsulation.Thelowerthe factorvalue(eg..001to.02),thebettertheinsulation.Startingat0.08&higherisanindication oftheinsulationdegradation.Notethatcosf=tand=wcr;wherecisthecapacitanceofthe insulationandristheresistanceoftheinsulation&w=2pif,fisthefrequencyoftheapplied voltage. Powerfactorofsinglecorecable:supposethatthedielectrichasaresistanceRwhichis independentofthestressandmaybeconsideredasconstantthroughoutthecableuponthe applicationofanalternatingvoltageoffrequencyf,therewillbeaninphasecurrentequalthe voltagedividedbytheresistanceoftheinsulationpercmlength.Theresistance= Rdx/(2pi x1)ohm/cm.Thelosseswithalternatingcurrentsarecausedbyabsorptionphenomenaandis usuallymuchlessthanthosecausedbyd.c.Thechargingcurrent=wCV;whereCisgivenby e/2lnD/dcm/cmandleadsthevoltageby90degrees.ThetotalcurrentIisthevectorsumof V/RandwCVandleadsthevoltagebyananglefi=1/wCR.Theconductance(reciprocalofR) ofthecablepercmlengthisG=cosfi(wC).Thismeasurementindicatesthequalityofthe insulation.Iftheanglefiis90(orcloseto)i.e.cosfiiszeroorcloseto(isequaltotand;where

d=90fi)thecableisconsideredingoodcondition.ThedielectriclossisV2/R=V2G=wCV2 fi.Thepowerfactorofthedielectricmaterialsvarywithstressandtemperature.Itincreases withtheincreaseofanyofthesetwovariablesi.e.stressortemperature.

Measurementofinductance,capacitance&dissipationfactorofacable: Bridgesareusedforthemeasurementofinductance,capacitanceandloss(dissipation)factor, fig.1.9.Thebridgesthatareusedinpracticeare:Maxwell'sinductance,Wien's&Schering's capacitancebridges(givealsotand)andcombinedMaxwell/WienbridgeforL,Candtand. Faultslocationinundergroundcables: Themainmethodsthatmaybeusedare:Murraylooptest,fallofpotentialtest,dcchargeand dischargetest,inductiontest,impulsewaveechotestandarcreflection. TheMurraylooptestcanpreciselylocatethefaultifitscurrentismorethan10mAi.e.fora batterywith100V,thefaultresistancecanbeashighas10Kohm.Thesensitivityisfunctionof thedetectorused.Initssimplestform,thefaultycableisloopedtoanadjacentsoundconductor ofthesamecrosssectionalarea.Acrosstheopenends,agalvanometerisjoinedandparallel withitaresistanceboxwithtwosetsofcoils.Thed.c.supplyisconnectedtothisarrangement. Whenthegalvanometerpointerisbalanced(becauseofadjustmentstotheresistancebox),the faultpositionisfoundby:distancetofault=(a/a+b).looplength;wherea:isthelengthofthe bridgearmjoinedtothefaultycore,b:isthelengthofthebridgearmjoinedtothesoundcore andthelooplengthisequaltotwicetheroutelength. Thefallofpotentialtest:isachievedbymeasuringthevoltageatbothends.Bycomparingthe measurements,thefaultlocationcanbeestimated.Theequipmentusedareabattery,rheostat, ammeterandlowrangemovingcoilammeter. Chargeanddischargetest:thismethodisvalidonlywhenlocatingabrokencorefault. Measuringtherelativecapacityfromeachendofthebrokencore,andusingtheformulad=(C1 /C1+C2).l;wheredisthedistanceofthefaultfromthemeasuredC1capacitance,listhe lengthofthecable,C1&C2aretheobservedcapacitancesfrombothendofthebrokencore. Allothercores,otherthantheonetestedaregroundedtoavoidfalsereadings. Theinductionmethod(fig.1.9a)orthethumpingmethod:thecableissuppliedwith intermittentpulsesofcurrentderivedfromimpulsegenerator,thecablerouteisthenexplored withasearchcoilconnectedtotelephonereceiver(acousticdetectiondevices).Thecoilisheld closetothegroundwithitsplaneparalleltotherunofthecable.Whenthefaultispassed,the cablewillcarrynocurrentandnothingwillbeheardontheearphone. Theimpulsewaveecho(Cableradar):thismethodisbasedontheprinciplethatapulse

propagatingalongacablewillbereflectedwhenitmeetsanimpedancemismatch.Foracable ofuniformdielectric,thepulsereflectedatthemismatchisdisplayedonaCRTatatimedelay directlyproportiontothedistanceofthemismatchfromthetestend(irrespectiveofthe conductorsize)andisgivenbyX=(t1/t2).cableroutelength;wheret1isthepulsetimetofault

Applicationofcablesplices:

Cablesplices(fig.1.11)areusedforthefollowingreasons: continuationofallcablecomponentsistobemaintained. toprovideprotectionagainstentranceofwaterandothercontaminantsintothecable. toprovidemechanicalsupporttothecable. Whenmakingasplice,thefollowingconditionshavetobefulfilled: voidsshouldnotbeintroduced. theinlineconnectorhastobeoftherightsize. therighttoolandcompressionforcehastobeusedtocrimptheconnectortotheconductorof thecable. theappliedinsulationthicknessshouldnotexceed1.5timesthecableinsulation,toavoid overheatingofsplice. Tappedsplices,heatshrinkablesandcoldshrinkablesarecommonlyused.

Faultedcircuitindicators: Faultedcircuitindicatorswhichcanbeinstalledinpodmounttransformersorswitchgearcanbe classifiedaccordingly:manuallyresettable,highvoltage,currentresettableandtimedresettable. Thebasicideaofoperationisthatifafaulttooccurdownstreamthisdevicealltheindicators aheadofthefaultwilloperateorset(asthefaultcurrentisflowingthroughthem)andallthe onesdownstreamthefaultwillnotoperate.Forthemanualresettypes,theinterventionofthe operatorisrequiredtoresetthedevice.Forthehighvoltagetype,whenthesupplyisrestored i.e.thevoltageisavailableagainonthesection(circuit),thedeviceresets.Forthecurrenttype, afterrepairshavebeendone,thecurrentflowinginthecircuitreachesaminimumpreadjusted value(eg.2or3amp.)willcausethedevicetoreset.Forthetimedone,afterfourhours,let's say,itwillresetautomatically.Thesefourhoursareusuallyfactoryadjustable.Whenan indicatoroperates,itwillshowthesectionoftheburiedcablethatmaybefaulty.Certain designscomewithattachmentstoalleviatepotentialnuisanceresettingorsettinglikeinrush currentswhenenergizationoftransformersorduetoreclosingactionsofreclosuresorstation circuitbreakers. Routetracing: Selfcontainedinstrumentsareavailablefortracingtheroutesandthedepthofhiddenorburied cables.Thelocationofundergroundcablesisbasedontheprincipleoftheconcentric

electromagneticfieldsurroundingacurrentcarryingconductor.Toidentifyandlocateacable,a predeterminedfrequencycurrentfromageneratoristransmittedalongthecable.Theresulting magneticfieldisthenexploredbymeansofaninductiveprobeordetectorrodwiththeintegral searchcoilandreceiver.Theyareequippedwithtogiveaudioandvisualsignals.Ifthe searchingdevicescandetectpowerfrequency,thehighfrequencygenerator.

ClassificationofEPRcables: TheclassificationofEPR(upto35KV)cablesisasfollows:thevoltageclass,theconductor material/size(whichisfunctionofthenormal/overload/shortcircuitcurrentvaluesandthe installationmethod/configuration),theinsulationthickness(whether100%or133%),jacketed orunjacketed,neutralsize(eitherfullor1/3rating),cableinconduitconfiguration/directburied orconcreteencasedconduits. ClassificationofXLPEcables: TheclassificationofXLPE(upto46KV)cablesisasfollows:thevoltageclass,theconductor material/size,insulationthickness,jacketedorunjacketed,neutral(concentricneutralandrating fullor1/3mainconductor)orshielded(Cutape),singleor3conductorcables,jackettype (whetherencapsulatedorsleeved),theuseofstrandfillorwaterblockingagentbetweenthe insulationandjacket. Cablesparameters: Thedefiningparameterscanbeclassifiedbroadlyintodimensional,insulationmaterial propertiesandcurrentcarryingcapacity.Fordimensionalparameters,conductorsize/numberof strands/typeofstrands,diameteroverconductor,diameteroverinsulation,diameterover insulationscreen,numberandsizeofneutralconductorsortapedetails(thickness,width&lap type)anddiameteroverthejacketarethedefiningdata.Otherimportantdataare:weight/1000 ftlength,sizeofreelsandlength/reel.Theinsulation/jacketdefiningparametersare:beforeand afteragingtensilestrengthandelongation,hotcreepelongation/set,dielectricconstant,

capacitance(SIC)duringandafterthestabilityperiod,insulationresistanceconstant,water absorptionproperties.Thelastsetofdefiningparametersarethecurrentlevelsatthenominal voltageunderthedifferentoperatingconditionswhicharefunctionof:thelayoutandproximity ofcurrentcarryingcables,themethodoflaying/pullingofcables,provisionoffutureadditional loadswiththeircorrespondingmaximumallowablevoltagedropandfinallythemaximum acceptabletemperaturerise&durationforthecableinsulatingmaterial. Cablestesting: Thedifferenttypesofteststhatareperformedoncablesatthefactoryare:partialdischarge,DC resistanceofcentralconductor,AChighvoltagedielectricwithstandability,DChighvoltage withstandability,insulationresistance,physicaldimensionsofcablecomponents,coldbend,low temperatureimpact,jacketintegrity,waterpenetrationandhightemperaturedriptestforthe strandfill(ifapplicable).Forconductorshieldthetestsare:volumeresistivity,elongationat rupture,voidandprotrusions,irregularitiesverification.Fortheinsulationare:tensilestrength (agedandunaged)/elongationatrupture(agedandunaged)/dissipationfactor(orpower factor)/hotcreep(elongationandset)/voidsandcontamination/solventextraction(ifapplicable). Fortheinsulationshieldare:volumeresistivity/elongationatrupture/voidandprotrusions irregularities/strippabilityatroomtemperatureandat25C/waterboiltest.Forthejacketare: tensilestrength,elongationatrupture(agedandunaged),absorptioncoefficient(ofwater),heat shockanddistortion.Onthecablethefollowingtestsmaybeperformed:structuralstabilityand insulationshrinkbackforcertaininsulationmaterials.Thetestsperformedonsiteare:visual inspection,size/ratingsverificationandD.C.withstandabilitytestsatvoltagelevelbelowthose usedinthefactory. Lowvoltagecablesparameters: Thedefiningparametersforl.v.secondarycablesare:materialofphaseconductor,numberof strands,classofstrand,typeofconductor(ie.concentric,compactorcompressed),conductor size,insulationthickness,overalldiameterpercable,overalldiameterperassembly(ie.triplex orquadruplex),theneutralconductorsize(equaltothephaseorreduced),ifapplicable, insulationandjacketmaterials,jacketthicknessandtheweightperassemblyper1000ftlength. Thedifferenttypesofcablesplicesare:tapped,heatshrinkableandcoldshrinkable.Themajor componentsofaspliceare:cableadapters,splicehousing,conductorcontact,conductiveinsert, retainingrings/tube,interferencefitandgroundingeye.Thedifferenttypesofcable terminationsare:thefullytaped,mouldedstressconeandtape,onepiecemouldedcable termination,porcelainterminators,heatshrinkablesandpotheads. Cablesconnectors: Thedifferenttypesofconnectorsare:themechanical(forAland/orCuconductors),the compression,thewedge(toconnectmainconductorstotaps),hotlineclamps(themain overheadtoequipmentconnection)andthestirrups(wedgedorbolted).Thetwotypesof separableconnectors(elbows)arethedeadbreakandloadbreak.Themajorcomponentsof elbowsare:theconnector,themouldedinsulatingbody,cableadapter,thetestpoint,thesemi conducingshield,semiconductinginsert,groundingtabsthepullingeye,theprobe(forload

break,itisfieldreplaceablewithabelativematerialarcfollower). Testingofelbows: Thedesigntestsperformedontheelbowsare:partialdischargeinceptionandextinctionlevels (corona),withstandpowerfrequencyvoltagecapability(a.c.andd.c.),impulsevoltage withstandlevel,shorttimecurrentrating,switchingtest,faultclosurerating,currentcyclingfor insulatedanduninsulatedconnectors,cablepulloutfromelbow(connector),operatingforce, pullingeyeoperation,testpointcappullingtest,shieldingtest,interchangeability,accelerated thermalandsealinglife,testpointcapacitance(voltagepresenceindication)test. Home of VePi