IV – characteristics

1. Investigate the relationship between current and potential difference: draw the
circuit diagram and the IV – characteristics of each of the following:
(a) metallic conductors at constant temperature
(b) filament lamp
(C) semiconductor diodes
(d) solutions of copper sulphate in water using copper electrodes .
2. Primary and secondary cells
(a) Draw a diagram and explain the functions of the various parts of a zinc-carbon
cell The parts of the cell and their functions. Mention the fact that there are other
types of primary cells

1. Zinc Can (Container):

Function: The outer casing made of zinc serves as the anode (negative terminal)
and provides structural support for the cell.
2. Zinc Electrode (Anode):
Function: A central rod of solid zinc serves as the anode. During the
electrochemical reactions, zinc undergoes oxidation releasing electrons.
3. Manganese Dioxide (MnO2) Paste:
Function: This material surrounds the zinc electrode and acts as the cathode.
Manganese dioxide is a good oxidizing agent, facilitating the reduction-oxidation
reactions in the cell.
4. Ammonium Chloride (NH4Cl) Paste:
Function: Serves as the electrolyte. It allows the flow of ions between the anode
and cathode, facilitating the electrochemical reactions. It also helps to keep the
cell's internal resistance low.
5. Carbon Rod (Cathode):
Function: A carbon rod is placed in the center of the manganese dioxide paste,
serving as the cathode (positive terminal). It collects the electrons released during
the chemical reactions.
6. Separator:
Function: A porous material prevents direct contact between the manganese
dioxide paste and the ammonium chloride paste, allowing ions to move between
them.
Other primary cells include alkaline cells, lithium cells, and silver oxide cells. Each
type has different materials for electrodes and electrolytes, leading to variations
in performance and application suitability.
(b) Distinguish between primary and secondary cells; Comparison of
characteristics such as: (i) terminal voltage, (ii) maximum current, (iii) internal
resistance, (iv) portability, and (v) rechargeability.

Primary cells are non-rechargeable cells that generate electrical energy through
chemical reactions, and once the reactants are depleted, the cell cannot be
reused.
Secondary cells are rechargeable cells that can be used repeatedly by reversing
the chemical reactions through the application of an external electrical current.
Comparison:
(i) Terminal Voltage:
Primary cells tend to have a more stable terminal voltage, while secondary cells
may have a more variable voltage depending on the state of charge.
(ii) Maximum Current:
Primary cells often provide higher maximum current initially, while secondary
cells may have limitations in the initial discharge.
(iii) Internal Resistance:
Primary cells generally have lower internal resistance, allowing efficient power
delivery, while secondary cells may have higher internal resistance leading to
some energy loss.
(iv) Portability:
Both primary and secondary cells can be portable, but primary cells are often
favored for applications where frequent replacement is impractical.
(v) Rechargeability:
Primary cells are not rechargeable, whereas secondary cells can be recharged
multiple times, making them more environmentally friendly and cost-effective in
the long term.
(c) draw a circuit diagram to show how a secondary cell can be recharged. Note
polarity and charging voltage.
3. Electricity in the home
(a) Discuss the reasons for using parallel connections of domestic appliances .

Using parallel connections of domestic appliances refers to connecting devices or

appliances in a parallel circuit, where each device has its own separate path to the
power source. There are several reasons for employing parallel connections in
domestic applications:
Independent Operation:
Parallel connections allow each appliance to operate independently of others. If
one device fails or is turned off, it doesn't affect the operation of the other
appliances on the same circuit.
Voltage Stability:
Devices connected in parallel receive the same voltage from the power source.
This ensures a stable and consistent voltage supply to each appliance, preventing
voltage drops or fluctuations that could affect the performance of sensitive
equipment.
Customization of Power Usage:
Parallel connections allow homeowners to customize their power usage. They can
choose which appliances to turn on or off without affecting the others, providing
flexibility in managing energy consumption based on specific needs.
Efficient Power Distribution:
Parallel circuits provide an efficient way to distribute power to multiple
appliances. Each device receives the full voltage of the circuit, ensuring that
power is evenly distributed among the connected appliances.
Redundancy and Reliability:
Parallel connections offer redundancy. If one appliance fails or is disconnected,
the others remain operational. This enhances the overall reliability of the
electrical system within a home.
Safety:
In parallel circuits, each appliance has its own pathway to the power source. This
reduces the risk of a single point of failure affecting the entire circuit. It also
makes it easier to isolate and troubleshoot issues in specific appliances without
disrupting the entire system.
Compatibility with Different Appliances:
Appliances with varying power requirements can be connected in parallel, as they
will each receive the appropriate voltage. This allows homeowners to use a
diverse range of devices without worrying about compatibility issues.
Ease of Installation and Maintenance:
Parallel connections simplify the installation and maintenance of domestic
electrical systems. Adding or removing appliances does not require rewiring the
entire system, making it more convenient for homeowners and electricians.
Facilitates Zoning:
Parallel connections enable the creation of zones within a household where
specific appliances can be grouped together. This zoning facilitates efficient
energy management and control.
(b) Explain the purpose of a fuse or circuit breaker and the earth wire
Purpose of a Fuse or Circuit Breaker:
Overcurrent Protection:
Fuses and circuit breakers are essential components in electrical circuits to
protect against overcurrents. An overcurrent can occur due to a short circuit (a
low-resistance connection) or an overload (excessive current drawn by connected
devices).
Preventing Electrical Fires:
The primary purpose is to prevent electrical fires. If the current in a circuit
exceeds the rated capacity of the wiring and devices, it can lead to overheating
and potentially cause a fire. Fuses or circuit breakers interrupt the circuit when
they detect an overcurrent, minimizing the risk of fire.
Protecting Electrical Equipment:
Fuses and circuit breakers safeguard electrical equipment and appliances from
damage caused by excessive currents. By interrupting the circuit, they prevent
damage to sensitive components and extend the lifespan of devices.
User Safety:
Overcurrent protection enhances user safety by reducing the risk of electric
shocks. In the event of a fault, the fuse or circuit breaker quickly disconnects the
power, preventing the flow of dangerous currents through the circuit.
Convenience and Cost-Effectiveness:
Fuses and circuit breakers provide a convenient and cost-effective means of
protection. Instead of replacing the entire wiring system in case of a fault, these
devices can be easily replaced or reset after identifying and addressing the issue.
Selective Coordination:
In larger electrical systems, fuses and circuit breakers are designed for selective
coordination. This ensures that, in the event of a fault, only the specific device
closest to the fault opens, minimizing the impact on the rest of the system.
Purpose of the Earth Wire (Grounding):
Safety in Fault Conditions:
The earth wire provides a path for fault currents to safely dissipate into the
ground in the event of a short circuit or other faults. This helps prevent electric
shocks and protects both people and equipment.
Stabilizing Voltage:
Grounding helps stabilize voltage levels by providing a reference point for the
electrical system. This reference point minimizes voltage fluctuations and helps
maintain a stable electrical environment.
Lightning Protection:
The earth wire is crucial for grounding lightning strikes. If lightning were to strike
a building or a power line, the earth connection provides a path for the enormous
energy to dissipate safely into the ground, reducing the risk of damage.
Equipment Protection:
Grounding protects electrical equipment by providing a low-resistance path for
fault currents. This helps prevent damage to devices and ensures their proper
functioning in the event of a fault.
Static Electricity Dissipation:
The earth wire helps dissipate static electricity from electrical systems, reducing
the risk of sparking and potential ignition in environments where flammable
materials are present.
(c) Highlight safety issues. Include fuse in live wire
Safety Issues with Fuses in Live Wires:
Electric Shock Hazard:
If a fuse is installed in the live wire and is replaced or removed without proper
precautions, there is a risk of electric shock. The live wire carries current, and
contact with it can lead to serious injuries or fatalities.
Inadequate Overcurrent Protection:
Placing a fuse in the live wire alone might not provide adequate protection
against faults. In the event of a short circuit, the live wire may still carry a
dangerous current until the fuse blows. This poses a risk to both people and
equipment.
Incorrect Replacement:
If a blown fuse is replaced with the wrong type or rating, it can compromise the
safety of the electrical circuit. Fuses should always be replaced with the correct
type and rating as specified by the manufacturer to ensure proper overcurrent
protection.
Fire Hazard:
Inadequate or incorrect fusing in live wires can increase the risk of electrical fires.
Without proper protection, excessive currents can lead to overheating of wires
and components, potentially causing a fire hazard.
Lack of Grounding and Earth Protection:
Fuses in live wires alone do not address grounding or earth protection. In the
absence of proper grounding, the risk of electric shock, lightning damage, and
static electricity issues may increase.
(d) Select a fuse or circuit breaker of suitable current rating for a given appliance.
Selecting the appropriate fuse or circuit breaker for a given appliance involves
considering the appliance's power consumption and the corresponding current
rating needed to protect the circuit. Here's a step-by-step guide:
Determine the Appliance's Power Rating:
Check the appliance's specifications or rating plate to find the power rating in
watts (W) or kilowatts (kW). The power rating is usually provided on the appliance
itself or in the user manual.
Convert Power to Current:
Use the formula Current (I)=Power (P)Voltage (V)Current (I)=Voltage (V)Power (P)
to convert the power rating to current. Most household appliances operate at
120V or 240V in the United States.
Choose a Fuse or Circuit Breaker Rating:
Select a fuse or circuit breaker with a current rating slightly higher than the
calculated current. Fuses and circuit breakers are typically available in standard
current ratings (e.g., 5A, 10A, 15A, etc.).
In the example above (calculated current of 10A), a 15A fuse or circuit breaker
would be suitable. It's essential to choose a rating higher than the calculated
current to prevent nuisance tripping.
Consider Additional Factors:
Check the electrical code and regulations in your region, as they may specify the
type and rating of protection devices required for certain appliances or circuits.
For high inrush current appliances (e.g., motors), select a protection device with a
time-delay characteristic to allow for temporary current spikes during startup.
Fuse Type:
Choose the appropriate type of fuse based on the application. Common types
include fast-acting, slow-blow, and time-delay fuses. The type of fuse selected
depends on the specific requirements of the circuit and the characteristics of the
connected appliance.
Installation:
Follow the manufacturer's guidelines and electrical codes when installing the fuse
or circuit breaker. Ensure proper installation and connections to guarantee
effective protection.
Consider a Residual Current Device (RCD) or Ground Fault Circuit Interrupter
(GFCI):
For additional safety, consider installing an RCD or GFCI in the circuit. These
devices provide protection against electric shock by quickly disconnecting the
power when a fault is detected.
(e) State the adverse effects of connecting electrical appliances to incorrect or
fluctuating voltage supplies.
Connecting electrical appliances to incorrect or fluctuating voltage supplies can
have various adverse effects on both the appliances and the overall electrical
system in the home. Here are some of the common adverse effects:
Reduced Appliance Lifespan:
Appliances are designed to operate within a specific voltage range. Connecting
them to voltages outside this range can lead to increased wear and tear, reducing
the lifespan of the appliance.
Overheating and Fire Hazard:
Incorrect or fluctuating voltages can cause appliances to overheat. Overheating
may lead to damaged insulation, melted components, and, in extreme cases, pose
a fire hazard.
Malfunctioning Electronics:
Fluctuating voltages can disrupt the operation of electronic components within
appliances. Microprocessors, control boards, and other sensitive electronics may
malfunction or fail, leading to appliance malfunctions.
Inefficient Performance:
Appliances connected to incorrect voltages may not operate at their optimal
performance levels. Motors may run slower or less efficiently, and electronic
devices may not function as intended, leading to poor overall performance.
Damage to Motors and Compressors:
Motors in appliances such as refrigerators, air conditioners, and washing
machines can suffer damage when exposed to incorrect voltages. This can result
in increased energy consumption, reduced efficiency, and eventual motor failure.
Inconsistent Heating Elements:
Appliances with heating elements, such as ovens and water heaters, may
experience inconsistent or insufficient heating when connected to incorrect
voltages. This can impact the appliance's ability to perform its intended function.
Loss of Energy Efficiency:
Appliances may become less energy-efficient when operated at voltages different
from their design specifications. This can lead to increased energy consumption,
higher electricity bills, and a negative impact on the environment.
Risk of Electric Shock:
Fluctuating voltages can increase the risk of electric shock, especially if insulation
in appliances is compromised. It is essential to ensure that appliances are
connected to a stable and safe voltage supply to prevent the risk of injury.
Damage to Power Supply Components:
Incorrect voltages can damage power supply components in electronic devices,
such as power adapters, leading to the need for replacement and potential safety
hazards.
Interference with Electronic Devices:
Fluctuating voltages can result in interference with electronic devices, affecting
the performance of audio and video equipment. This interference can manifest as
buzzing sounds, flickering screens, or poor signal quality.