Electrical Safety

Protecting the Device & User

Specification Point 2.2: Understand how the use of insulation, double
insulation, earthing, fuses and circuit breakers protects the device or
user in a range of domestic appliances
Fuses

 A fuse is a safety device designed to cut off the flow of

electricity to an appliance if the current becomes too
large (due to a fault or a surge).

The circuit symbol for a fuse – take care not to confuse this with a
resistor

 Fuses usually consist of a glass cylinder containing a thin metal

wire.
 If the current in the wire become too large:
o  The wire heats up and melts
o This causes the wire to break, breaking the circuit and
stopping the current.

The Earth Wire

 Many electrical appliances have metal cases.

 This poses a potential safety hazard:
o If a live wire (inside the appliance) came into contact with
the case, the case would become electrified and anyone
who touched in would risk electrocution.
 The earth wire is an additional safety wire that can reduce this
risk
 A diagram showing the three wires going to a mains powered appliance: Live, neutral and
earth

 If this happens:
o The earth wire provides a low resistance path to the
earth.
o This causes a surge of current in the earth wire and
hence also in the live wire.
o The high current through the fuse causes it to melt and
break.
o This cuts off the supply of electricity to the appliance,
making it safe.

Double Insulation

 Some appliances do not have metal cases and so there is no risk

of them becoming electrified.
 Such appliances are said to be double insulated, as they have
two layers of insulation:
o Insulation around the wires themselves
o The non-metallic case acts as a second layer of insulation
 Double insulated appliances do not require an earth wire, and
are usually marked with the following symbol:
 Double insulated appliances do not require earth wires

Exam Tip: The above explanations are important and so it is worth learning them word
for word as written here.

Resistor Current

Specification Point 2.3: Understand why a current in a resistor

results in the electrical transfer of energy and an increase in
temperature, and how this can be used in a variety of domestic
contexts

 Electricity, in metals, is caused by a flow of electrons.

 As the electrons pass through the metal they collide with
ions: The ions resist the flow of the electrons.

As electrons flow through the metal, they collide with ions, making them vibrate more
  When the electrons collide, they lose some energy, giving it to
the ions, which start to vibrate more.
 As a result of this, the metal heats up.
 This effect is used in many electric heaters, including electric
ovens, some types of electric hob, toasters, kettles and old
fashioned incandescent light bulbs.

Electrical Power: The basics

Specification Point 2.4: Know and use the relationship between
power, current and voltage:
Power = Current x voltage
P=IxV
and apply the relationship to the selection of appropriate fuses.

 Power is the rate of energy transfer (the amount of energy

transferred per second).
 The power of an electrical component (or appliance) is given by
the equation:

Power = Current  x voltage

P=IxV

 You can rearrange this equation with the help of the formula
triangle:

Use the formula triangle to help you rearrange the equation

  The unit of power is the watt (W), which is the same as a joule
per second (J/s)

Selecting fuses

 A fuse is a safety device designed to cut off the supply of

electricity to an appliance if the current becomes too large.
Fuses come in a variety of sizes (typically 3A, 5A and 13A) – in
order to select the right fuse for the job, you need to know how
much current an appliance need.
 If you know the power of the appliance (along with mains
voltage), the current can be calculated using the equation:

current = power / voltage

 The fuse should always have a current rating that is higher than
the current needed by the appliance, without being too high
– always choose the next size up.

Example:

 Suppose an appliance uses 3.1 amps.

o A 3-amp use would be too small – the fuse would blow as
soon as the appliance was switched on.
o A 13-amp fuse would be too large – it would allow an
extra 10 amps to pass through the appliance before it
finally blew.
o A 5-amp fuse would be an appropriate choice, as it is the
next size up.

Energy Transferred, Current, Voltage, Time

 Specification Point 2.5: Use the relationship between energy
transferred, current, voltage and time:
energy transferred = current x voltage x time
E=IxVxt

 The amount of electrical energy used by a component or

appliance depends upon three things:
o The current
o The voltage
o The amount of time the device is used for.
 The energy transferred can be calculated from the equation:

energy transferred = current x voltage x time

E=IxVxt

 Where the unit of energy is the joule (J).

 Note that this equation is related to the equation for power:

power = current x voltage

 Power is the energy transferred per second and so:

energy transferred = power x time = current x voltage x time

Exam Tip: The equation for energy transferred is given at the front of the examination paper:
become familiar with which equations are given and which ones you need to remember.

Mains, A.C., D.C.

Specification Point 2.6: Know the difference between mains

electricity being alternating current (a.c.) and direct current (d.c.)
being supplied by a cell or battery

 An alternating current (a.c.) is one that continuously

changes its direction, going back and forth around a circuit.
  A direct current (d.c.) is one that is steady, constantly going
the same way around a circuit, from positive to negative.

Two graphs showing the variation of current with time for alternating current and direct
current

 Electric cells (batteries) produce direct current (d.c.)

 Mains electricity is an alternating current (a.c.).

Exam Tip: If asked to explain the difference between alternating and direct current, sketch
the graphs shown above: A well sketched (and labelled) graph can earn you full marks.

Advantages & Disadvantages

Specification Point 2.7: Explain why a series or parallel circuit is
more appropriate for particular applications, including domestic
lighting

 A series circuit consists of a string of two or more components,

connected end to end:
 Diagram showing two bulbs connected in series

 An advantage of a circuit such as this is that:

 All of the components can be controlled by a single switch.
 The disadvantages are:
o The components cannot be controlled separately.
o If one component breaks, the others will stop working as
well.

 A parallel circuit consists of two or more components attached

along separate branches of the circuit.

Diagram showing two bulbs connected in parallel

  The advantages of this kind of circuit are:
o The components can be individually controlled, using
their own switches.
o If one component stops working the others will continue to
function.

Current in Circuits
Specification Point 2.8: Understand how the current in a series
circuit depends on the applied voltage and the number and nature
of other components

 The amount of current passing around a series circuit depends

on two things:
o The voltage of the power source.
o The number (and type) of components in the circuit (which
affects its total resistance).

Increasing the number of components in a series circuit (for a given voltage) will decrease
the current

Exam Tip: You may have realised that the components in a parallel circuit can also be
controlled using a single switch. Nevertheless, the exam board still regards this as an
advantage of a series circuit.
 IV Graphs
Specification Point 2.9: Describe how current varies with voltage
in wires, resistors, metal filament lamps and diodes, and how to
investigate this experimentally

 As the voltage across a component is increased, the current

in the component also increases.
 The precise relationship between voltage and current can be
different for different types of components and  is shown by an
IV graph:

IV graphs for a resistor, a filament lamp and a diode

 A diode is a component that only allows current to pass in

one direction (the direction of the arrow part of the symbol).
 If a voltage is applied in the reverse direction, the diode has
a very high resistance and prevents any current.
 To investigate the IV graph of a component:
o Set up a circuit like the one below
 A circuit for investigating the electrical characteristics of a component

o Starting with a low voltage, slowly increase the voltage of

the power supply over a range of settings (e.g. from 1V to
12V in 1 V intervals).
o Record the readings on the ammeter and voltmeter as you
do so.
o Repeat the experiment 3 times and take an average.

Resistance
Specification Point 2.10: Describe the qualitative effect of
changing resistance on the current in a circuit

 Resistance is a measure of a component’s opposition to current.

 If the resistance of a circuit is increased (for a fixed
voltage), the current around the circuit will decrease (and
vice-versa)
  The graph below shows the IV graphs for three different
resistors: One low resistance, one medium and one high.

Graphs showing the effect of resistance upon current

Thermistors & LDRs

Specification Point 2.11: Describe the qualitative variation of
resistance of light-dependent resistors (LDRs) with illumination
and thermistors with temperature

 A thermistor (thermal resistor) is a component which changes

its resistance in response to temperature:

The circuit symbol for a thermistor. Note its similarity to a resistor

 When a thermistor is heated, its resistance decreases (and

vice versa).
 An LDR (Light dependent resistor) is a component
which changes its resistance in response to light levels.
A Light Dependent Resistor (LDR). This symbol is occasionally drawn with a circle around
it

 If more light is shone on to an LDR, its resistance

decreases (and vice versa).

Lamps & LEDs

Specification Point 2.12: Know that lamps and LEDs can be used
to indicate the presence of a current in a circuit

 Lamps and LEDs (light emitting diodes) are both components

that light up when a current pass through them. This can be used
to test for the presence of a current in a circuit.
 LEDs are types of diodes: They only allow current to pass in
one direction through them and will only light if the current
passes in that direction

The symbol for an LED. An LED, like a normal diode, is directional

EXAM TIP:

 Learn the various symbols mentioned above. Many of them are very similar with small
differences denoting what they do:
o Two arrows pointing towards a symbol mean that it is light dependent.
o Two arrows pointing away mean that it is light emitting.
 Symbols are sometimes drawn with circles around them (e.g. the LDR). These circles are
often optional (although not in the case of meters and bulbs).
 Exam Tip V=IR
Specification Point 2.13: Know and use the relationship between
voltage, current and resistance:
voltage = current x resistance
V=IxR

 Resistance is the opposition to current.

 Voltage, current and resistance are related by the following
equation:

voltage = current x resistance

V = I x R

Use the formula triangle to help you rearrange the equation

 The unit of resistance is the ohm (Ω).

Current
Specification Point 2.14: Know that current is the rate of flow of
charge

 Current (measured in amps, A) is a flow of charge (measured

in coulombs, C).
 By definition, current always goes from positive to negative,
even though the charged particles (usually electrons) sometimes
go the other way.
 By definition, current always goes from positive to negative

Charge
Specification Point 2.15: Know and use the relationship between
charge, current and time:
Charge = Current x time
Q = I x t

 The current is the charge passing a point in a circuit every

second.
(It is helpful to think of current as the charge per second).
 Charge, current and time are related by the following equation:

Charge = Current x time

Q = I x t

 Where the symbols:

o Q stands for charge (measured in coulombs, C)
o I stands for current (measured in amps, A)
 You can rearrange this equation with the help of the formula
triangle:
 Use the formula triangle to help you rearrange the equation

Electrons
Specification Point 2.16: Know that electric current in solid
metallic conductors is a flow of negatively charged electrons

 In a metal current is caused by a flow of electrons.

In metals the current is caused by a flow of free (delocalised)

electrons

 Electrons are negatively charged.

 This means that the electrons flow from negative to positive.
 The current, however, is still defined as going from positive to
negative.
 Current in Circuits
Specification Point 2.17: Understand why current is conserved at
a junction in a circuit

 In a series circuit the current is the same at all points.

 In a parallel circuit the current splits up – some of it going
one way and the rest going the other.

Diagram showing the behaviour of current in series and parallel circuits

 Although the current splits up in a parallel circuit, it does not

necessarily do so equally: The current will only split exactly in
half if the components along each parallel branch have the same
resistance.
 To understand why current behave in this way, think carefully
about the electrons:
o Electrons are physical matter – they cannot be created or
destroyed (without the involvement of antimatter).
o This means the total number of electrons (and hence
current) going around a circuit must remain the same.
o When the electrons reach a junction, however, some of
them will go one way and the rest will go the other.
 Diagram showing current splitting and coming back together at two junctions

Exam Tip:

 An amp is the same as a coulomb per second.

 Remembering the above can help you to remember the equation Q = I x t
 Remember that although electrons go from negative to positive, the current always goes from
positive to negative.

Voltage: The Basics

Specification Point 2.18: Know that the voltage across two

components connected in parallel is the same

 In a series circuit the voltage of the power supply is shared

between the components.
 In a parallel circuit the voltage across each component is the
same.
 Diagram showing the behaviour of voltage in series and parallel circuits

Resistors in Series

Specification Point 2.19: Calculate the currents, voltages and

resistances of two resistive components connected in a series
circuit

 When two or more components are connected in series:

o The current in each component is the same.
o The total voltage across the components is equal to the
sum of individual voltages.
o The combined resistance of the components is equal to the
sum of individual resistances
 Diagram showing several resistive components in a series circuit

The Definition
Specification Point 2.20 Know that:
o voltage is the energy transferred per unit charge
passed
o the volt is a joule per coulomb.

 As charge flows around a circuit, energy is transferred to or

from the charge.
 The voltage is the amount of energy transferred by each unit
of charge passing between two points in that circuit.
 The unit of voltage, the volt (V), is the same as a joule per
coulomb (J/C).
 For example:
o If a power supply has a voltage of 6 V, every coulomb of
charge passing through the power supply will gain 6 J of
energy.
o If a bulb has a voltage of 3 V, every coulomb of charge
passing through the bulb will lose 3 J of energy.
  As charge passes around a circuit, the total amount of energy it
loses is the same as the energy it gains when it passes through
the power supply

E = QV

Specification Point 2.21:Know and use the relationship between

energy transferred, charge and voltage:
Energy transferred = charge x voltage
E = Q x V

 As mentioned above, the voltage between two points in a circuit

is equal to the energy transferred by coulomb of charge passing
between those two points.
 Therefore if a charge Q passes between those two points the
total energy transferred will be:

Energy transferred = charge x voltage

E=QxV

 You can rearrange this equation with the help of the formula
triangle:

Use the formula triangle to help you rearrange the equation

 The above equation is equivalent to the following equation:

 Energy transferred = current x voltage x time

Since:

charge = current x time

Exam Tip:

 It is helpful to think of voltage as energy per coulomb – doing so will

help you to understand its behaviour as well as the equation E = Q x  V.
 Try to understand the links between the various relationships given
above – if you understand these, it will help you to remember and use
the various equations.
 Paper 2 Only
Conductors & Insulators: The Basics

Specification Point 2.22P: Identify common materials which are

electrical conductors or insulators, including metals and plastics

 A conductor is a material that allows charge (usually electrons)

to flow through it.
 An insulator is a material that has no free charges are hence does
not allow the flow of charge through it.

Diagram showing the structure of metals. The delocalised electrons are free to move
around the metal allowing it to conduct electricity

The table above lists some conductors and insulators

NOTE:
 Some non-metals, such as wood, allow some charge to pass through
them. Although they are not very good at conducting, they do conduct
a little: Whilst you wouldn’t wire a circuit using pieces of wood, if
you have a static electric charge then touching a piece of wood would
allow that charge to be conducted away.

Practical: Charging by Friction

Specification Point 2.23P: Practical: investigate how insulating

materials can be charged by friction
 In your exam you might be expected to explain how to give
insulating materials a charge by the process of friction and to
describe how to demonstrate the charging of materials in this
way.
Method:
 Suspend one of the insulating materials using a cradle and a
length of string so that the material can rotate freely.
 Rub one end of the material using a cloth (in order to give it a
charge).
 Now take a second piece of insulating material and charge that
by rubbing with a cloth.
 Hold the charged end of the second piece close to the charged
end of the first piece:
 If the first piece rotates away (is repelled) from the second piece
then the materials have the same charge.
 If the first piece moves towards (is attracted to) the second piece
then they have opposite charges.

EXAM TIP:
 Experimental demonstrations, such as the one above, are different to
experiments in which you have to take measurements. When describing a
demonstration, you will often need to state a conclusion – in other words
explain what you expect to happen and what it means.
 ELECTRONS
Specification Point 2.24P: Explain how positive and negative
electrostatic charges are produced on materials by the loss and
gain of electrons.
 Electrons are negatively charged particles.
 Usually the number of electrons around an atom are equal to the
number of (positive) protons in the nucleus of the atom, and
hence the atom is neutral.

The number of negative electrons in an atom balances the number of positive protons

 If, however, an object gains extra electrons, it will gain an

overall negative charge.
 If it loses some of its electrons it will be left with a positive
charge.
o Negative charges are the result of gaining electrons.
o Positive charges are the result of losing electrons.
 Positive & Negative Charges

Specification Point 2.25P:Know that there are forces of attraction

between unlike charges and forces of repulsion between like charges
 When two charged objects are brought close together, there will
be a force between those objects.

 Remember:
o Opposite charges attract.
o Like charges repel.

Gaining & Losing Charge

Specification Point 2.26P: Explain electrostatic phenomena in terms
of the movement of electrons
 Objects can be given a charge by rubbing them with another
object. This is called charging by friction.
 If the object is an insulator, it will keep its charge afterwards.
 When two objects are rubbed together:
o One of them will gain electrons and hence gain a negative
charge.
o The other will lose electrons and hence gain a positive
charge.
 EXAM TIP:
 Remember the saying: “Opposites attract”.
 At this level, if asked to explain how things gain or lose charge, you must
discuss electrons and explain whether something has gained or lost them.
 Remember that if an object gains a charge, something else must have
gained the opposite charge.

The Uses & Dangers of Static Electricity

DANGERS
Specification Point 2.27P: Explain the potential dangers of electostatic
charges, e.g. when fuelling aircraft and tankers
 There are various situations where static electricity can pose a
hazard, for example:
o The risk of electrocution (from lightning)
o The risk of a fire or explosion (due to a spark close to a
flammable gas or liquid).

 One common example concerns the refuelling of planes.:

o When a plane is refuelled, the fuel has to be pumped at a
fast rate.
o Friction between the fuel (a liquid insulator) and the pipe
causes the fuel to gain a charge.
o If this charge were to cause a spark the fuel could ignite.

Diagram showing the use of a bonding line whilst refuelling a place

  To prevent this, planes are connected to the earth with a copper
wire (the bonding line) whilst they are being refuelled.
 This wire removes charge from the plane by carrying it to the
earth, which removes the risk of any sparks.

USES
Specification Point 2.28P: Explain some uses of electrostatic
charges, e.g. in photocopiers and inkjet printers

 As well as the risks mentioned above, static electricity also has a

number of uses.
 A common use of static electricity is in photocopiers:

 Inside a photocopier the following steps take place:

o A special plate is given an electric charge.

o An image of the document being copied is projected
onto the plate.
o The plate loses its charge in the light areas and keeps it
in the dark areas.
o A dark powder (toner) is applied to the plate. It sticks to
the parts that still have charge.
 o The powder is now transferred onto a sheet of paper,
which is heated to make the powder stick.

EXAM TIP:
 You could be asked to explain other dangers and uses in your
exams.
 When explaining uses and dangers try and explain the charges
in terms of electrons.
 If asked to explain a danger:
o State what the danger is (Electrocution? Fire?)
o Explain how the charge can be removed to get rid of the
risk. (Which way do the electrons move?)
 If asked to explain a use, think carefully about the forces exerted
by static electricity and what they will do.