TEACHER PROFESSIONALISM

CONTENTS
CHAPTER 1: PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION CHAPTER 2: CURRICULUM CHAPTER 3: TEACHING AS A PROFESSION CHAPTER 4: THE TEACHER AND THE WORLD OF EDUCATION CHAPTER 5: THE TEACHER AND PROFESSIONAL SKILLS CHAPTER 6: THE TEACHER AND SELF DEVELOPMENT CHAPTER 7: CHALLENGES OF THE TEACHING PROFESSION 3 11 19 24 30 39 46

CHAPTER 8: DEVELOPMENT OF THE EDUCATION SYSTEM IN MALAYSIA 51 CHAPTER 9: EDUCATIONAL OUTCOME 60

CHAPTER 1: PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION

Overview:
In this chapter, we shall cover Philosophy of Education Basic Concepts of philosophy and education traditional modern Concepts of Islamic philosophy Factors influencing the formulation of the National Philosophy of Education Elements in the National Philosophy of Education Goals Conceptual Model of Teacher Education Teaching Values Western Philosophy of Education

Islamic Philosophy of Education The National Philosophy of Education

The Philosophy of Teacher Education

Implications of the national philosophy of education and the philosophy of teacher education on the role of the teacher as an educator

Key Terms
Philosophy Education Realism Idealism Pragmatism Existentialism Metaphysics Axiology Epistemology Logic Perennialism Essensialism Progressivism Reconstructionism National Philosophy of Education

Philosophy of teacher education Islamic Philosophy of Education

Further Reading
Armstrong,D.G., Henson, K.T. & Savage,T.V. (1995). Education : An Introduction. New York: Macmillan Publishing Company. Ozmon,H.A. & Craver, S.M. (1995). Philosophical Foundations of Education. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice Hall. Teacher Education Division. 1982. The Philosophy of Education (Report of the National Workshop and Survey), Ministry of Education. http://www.moe.gov.my http://cw.prenhall.com/bookbind/pubbooks/armstrong3/chapter3/chapter12/deluxe.html http://www.siu.edueyctr/cdromsup.html http://www.soe.purdue.edu/fac/georgeoff/phil am ed/essentialism.html http://www.morehead-st.edu/people/w.willis/fourtheories.html

Suggested Input
1. Philosophy Philosophy literally means love for wisdom and has traditionally implied the pursuit of wisdom. It is a comprehensive, holistic and logical investigation on human thoughts in the field of religion, arts, science and education. 2. Metaphysics Metaphysics is concerned with the nature of reality. It is defined as beyond the physical or the material. It deals with questions that go beyond what can be answered by reference to scientific investigation. It is speculative and focus on issues as the nature of cause-effect relationships. It relates to teaching in terms of thoughts about educational goals, the selection of appropriate content and educational goals, and attitudes towards the general nature of learners. Metaphysics asks such questions as the following: Is there a body of universal knowledge to be learned? Who should decide what is to be learned? Are learners basically good and trustworthy? 3. Epistemology 3.1 Epistemology is concerned with the nature of knowledge. Answers to epistemological questions provide a rationale for selecting material that is worth teaching and learning and suggest how information should be taught. Two basic epistemological questions are:

What constitutes knowledge? Is knowledge fixed or changing? 3.2 Another basic epistemological question centers on what might be described as ways of knowing and the reliability of methods of knowing. Basically the issue is one of whether knowledge comes from revelation, from authority, from intuition, from the senses or from reason or experimentation. 3.3 Teachers approaches to teaching content to learners says a good deal about their own answers to basic epistemological questions. For example, a teacher who insists that learners master specific facts and principles that others have discovered operates on the assumption that there is such a thing as true knowledge. Other teachers who are more interested in teaching the processes of problem-solving, imply that there is no ultimate truth and that it makes better sense for youngsters to learn some skills that will be useful to them in arriving at answers that are situational specific. 4. Axiology 4.1 Axiology focuses on questions about what ought to be. It deals with the nature of values and relates to the teaching of moral values and character development. The topics of morality, ethics and aesthetics fall into this philosophical category. Some questions associated with axiology are : How should life be lived? What is the nature of existence? Does life have any meaning? What is moral and immoral? What is beauty? 4.2 Another important axiological question of a different kind concerns the nature of right conduct. How should a person behave? What is moral behaviour? How do individuals know when they are doing the right thing? Some argue that there are universal principles or guidelines that can be followed. Some reject the idea but contend that appropriateness of behaviour is situation-specific. 5. Logic 5.1 Logic is the science of exact thought and it deals with the relationships among ideas and with the procedures used to differentiate between valid and fallacious thinking. Logic can help you to communicate more effectively by encouraging a careful, systematic arrangement of the thoughts. It can assist you as you work to evaluate the consistency of learners reasoning. It also contributes to your ability to assess the reliability of the new information you encounter.

5.2 There are two basic types of logic- deductive and inductive logic. Deductive logic begins with a a general conclusion and then elucidates this conclusion by citing examples and particulars that logically flow from it. Inductive logic begins with particulars then reasoning focuses on these particulars and proceeds to a general conclusion that explains them. 6. Realism 6.1 Realism stresses on objective knowledge and values. The essential doctrines of realism hold that (1) there is a world of real existence that human beings have not made or constructed; (2)this real existence can be known by the human mind; and (3) such knowledge is the only reliable guide to human conduct both individual and social. 6.2 Reality is objective and is composed of matter and form. It is fixed based on natural law. Knowing consists of sensation and abstraction. Values are absolute and eternal, based on natures laws. 6.3 The realist stresses a curricular consisting of organized, separate subject matter, content and knowledge that classifies objects. The most general and abstract subjects are at the top of the curricular hierarchy and gives particular and transitory subjects at a lower order of priority. Logic and lessons that exercise the mind and that cultivate rational thought are stressed. Concepts and systems that can be organized into subjects such as ethical, political and economic thought are included in the curriculum. The three Rs are also necessary in a persons basic education. 6.4 Realist views subject matter experts as the source of authority and reality and truth emanate from both science and art. 7. Idealism 7.1 Reality is spiritual or mental and unchanging. Knowing is the rethinking of latent ideas and values are absolute, eternal and universal. 7.2 Idealists stressed on the importance of mind over matter. Ideas are the only true reality. They do not reject matter, but hold that the material world is characterized by change, instability and uncertainty while ideas are enduring. 7.3 Idealists conceive of people as thinking beings, having minds capable of seeking truth through reasoning and of obtaining truth by revelation. 7.4 It is concerned with the student as one who has enormous potential for growth, both morally and cognitively. 7.5 Curriculum is hierarchical and it constitutes the cultural heritage of mankind; it is based on learned disciplines, illustrated by the liberal arts curriculum. The most general subjects are philosophy and theology; mathematics is important with

history and literature being sources of moral and cultural models. Natural and physical sciences are lower down the hierarchy while language is an important subject for communication and facilitates conception of thought. 8. Pragmatism 8.1 Reality is the interaction of an individual with the environment or experienceand it is also changing. Knowing results from experiencing and the use of scientific method. Values are situational or relative. 8.2 It is based on change, process and relativity. It construes knowledge as a process in which reality is constantly changing. Learning occurs as the person engages in problem solving. 8.3 Pragmatists believe that nothing can be viewed intelligently except in relation to a pattern. The whole affects the parts and the parts and the whole are all relative. Teaching is more exploratory and what is needed is a method for dealing with change and scientific investigation in a intelligent manner. 8.4 Dewey viewed education as a process for improving the human condition. The curriculum is for based on the childs experiences and interests and prepares him or her lifes affairs and for the future. The subject is interdisplinary ; the stress is on problem-solving. 8.5 Pragmatists consider teaching and learning to be a process of reconstructing experience according to the scientific method. Learning takes place in an active way as learners solve problems. 9. Existentialism 9.1 Reality is subjective, with existence preceding essence. Knowing to make personal choices and should be freely chosen. 9.2 Existentialists prefer to free learners to choose what to study and also to determine what is true and by what criteria to determine these truths. Learners are free to choose from the many available learning situations. Learners are free to choose the knowledge they wish to possess. 9.3 Existentialist curriculum would consist of experiences and subjects that lend themselves to philosophical dialogue and acts of choice making. Subjects that are emotional, esthetic and philosophical are appropriate. Literature, drama, film making and art are important because they portray human condition and choicemaking conditions. The curriculum would stress self-expressive activities, experimentation and methods and media that illustrate emotions, feelings and insights. 10. Perennialism

10.1

Perennialism is rooted in realism. It aims to educate the rational person and to cultivate the intellect. Focus on past and permanent studies; mastery of facts and timeless knowledge.

10.2 10.3 10.4

Teacher helps students think rationally; based on Socratic method, oral exposition; explicit teaching of traditional values. The curriculum is a common one and subject-centered. Emphasis on language, literature and mathematics, arts and sciences. The teacher is viewed as an authority in the field whose knowledge and expertise are unquestionable. The teacher is the master of the subject and must be able to guide discussion.

11. Essentialism 11.1 Essensialism is rooted in both realism and idealism. It aims promote the intellectual growth of the individual and to educate the competent person. Focus on essential skills and academic subjects; mastery of concepts and principles of subject matter 11.2 11.3 11.4 11.5 Teacher is authority in his or her subject field; explicit teaching of traditional values. Essential skills are 3 Rs and essential subjects (English, Science, history, mathematics and foreign languages). It is concerned with facts and knowledge and also interested in conceptual thought, principles and theories of subject matter. The teacher is considered a master of a particular subject and a model worthy of emulation. The teacher is , in authority and controls the classroom, decides on the curriculum with minimal student input. 12. Progressivism 12.1 Progressivism is based on pragmatism. It aims to promote democratic and social living. Emphasizes change as the essence of reality. It views knowledge as something tentative that may explain present reality . Knowledge leads to growth and development and it focus on active and relevant learning. 12.2 12.3 13. Teacher is a guide for problem solving and scientific inquiry Curriculum is based on students interests and it involves the application of human problems, interdisciplinary subject matter, activities and projects. Reconstructionism 13.1 Reconstructionism is based on pragmatism. It proposes to improve and reconstruct society. They believe that schools serve as an important catalyst to improve the human condition through educational and social reform.

13.2 13.3 13.4

Skills and subjects need to identify and ameliorate problems of society. Learning is active and concerned with contemporary and future society Teacher serves as an agent of change and reform. He helps students become aware of problems confronting mankind Curriculum emphasizes on social sciences and social research methods; focus on present and future trends as well as on the national and international issues

14. 14.1

ISLAMIC PHILOSPHY OF EDUCATION Definition of Philosophy Love for wisdom Need to obtain the truth and to internalize them Make every effort to solve human and humanity problems prevailing in society Philosophy which is based on the teaching of Islam as obtained from revealed knowledge The role of Islamic Philosophy is to explain the relationship between man and his Creator (Allah), between man and man, and between man and his environment.

14.2

Islamic Philosophy -

14.3

Islamic Education Islamic education is a process to educate and train the mind, body, soul and emotion of man based on revealed knowledge (al-Quran and As-Sunnah), experiences of salaf al-Salih and prominent educators in the hope to produce human being who is pious, able to carry out his responsibilities as caliph as specified by Allah onto mankind to develop this world in order to achieve happiness in this world and the world after. Islamic education is a process to consciously guide educators mould students based on the teachings of Islam

14.4

Goals and Aims of Islamic Education The goal of Islamic Education, based on al-Quran and As-Sunnah, is to mould and develop human being as a Muslim who is knowledgeable, believes in God, performs good deeds, and has good personality in an effort to equip himself and be responsible as a servant to God and be a pious leader. The aims of Islamic Education is to educate students: to be of good behaviour to achieve perfection in their soul to do good and noble deeds to practise refined culture to get use to cleanliness, sincerity and good practices

14.5

Islamic Philosophy of Education Philosophy of education is based on the teaching of Islam or revealed knowledge. Islamic Philosophy of Education , Malaysian Ministry of Education states that Islamic education is a continuous effort to deliver knowledge, skills and practices of Islam based on al-Quran and as-Sunnah in developing attitude, skills, personality, and views of life as a servant of God who is responsible to develop oneself, society, environment, and country to achieve happiness in this world and the world after. It aims to prepare man with sufficient experiences and knowledge so that he knows who he is, his roles and responsibilities as a servant to God and a leader so as to be devoted human being.

15. National Philosophy of Education Education in Malaysia is an on-going effort towards further developing the potential of individuals in a holistic and integrated manner, so as to produce individuals who are intellectually, spiritually, emotionally and physically balanced and harmonious, based on firm belief in God. Our efforts are focused towards creating Malaysian citizen who are knowledgeable and competent, who possess high moral standards, and who are responsible and capable of achieving a high level of personal well-being and able to contribute to the harmony and prosperity of the family, the society and the nation at large. 1. The Philosophy of Teacher Education The teacher, who is noble in character,progressive and scientific in outlook, committed to uphold the aspirations of the nation, and cherishes the national cultural heritage, ensures the development of the individual and the preservation of a united,democratic,progressive and disciplined society Teacher Education Conceptual Model ( refer to syllabus)

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CHAPTER 2: CURRICULUM
Overview
In this Chapter, we shall cover Concept and types of curriculum Factors influencing the formulation and changes in the curriculum The school curriculum: The New Primary Curriculum (KBSR) The Integrated Secondary school Curriculum (KBSM) The role of the teacher in implementing the curriculum Futuristic curriculum

Key Terms
Curriculum Hidden Curriculum Recommended Curriculum Written Curriculum Supported Curriculum Taught Curriculum Tested Curriculum Learned Curriculum Futuristic curriculum Models of Curriculum Design

Further Reading
Barrow,R. (1984). Giving Teaching back to teachers. A critical introduction to curriculum theory. Brighton: Wheatsheaf Books. Duke, D.L. (1990). Teaching: An Introduction. New York: McGraw-Hill Publishing Co. Eisner,E.W. (1994). The Educational Imagination. New York: Macmillan College Pub. Glatthorn, A.A. (1987). Curriculum Leadership. Glenview: Scott, Foreman. Pusat Perkembangan Kurikulum.(1994). Kurikulum Bersepadu Sekolah Rendah (KBSR) secara menyeluruh. Kuala Lumpur: Kementerian Pendidikan Malaysia Stenhouse. (1975). An Introduction to curriculum Research and Development. London: Heinemann. Taba,H. (1962). Curriculum Development: Theory and practice. New York: Harcourt Brace and World.

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Tyler, R.W. ( 1969). Basic Principles of curriculum and Instruction. Chicago: The University of the Chicago Press http://www.infed.org/biblio/b-curric.htm. http://pages.nyu.edu/~asr209/curriculum.doc http://www.cast.org/udl/EnvisioningFutureCurriculum189.cfm

Suggested Input
1. Curriculum: 1.1. The planned and guided learning experiences and intended learning outcomes, formulated through the systematic reconstruction of knowledge and experiences, under the auspices of the school, for the learners continous and willful growth in personal social competence. 1.2. 1.3. 1.4. The curriculum of a school can be conceived as a series of planned events that are intended to have educational consequences for one or more students Curriculum is all the learning experiences planned and directed by the school to attain its educational goals Curriculum is the plan made for guiding learning in the school usually represented in retrievable documents of several levels of generality, and the actualization of those plans in the classroom, as experienced by the learners and as recorded by the observer; those experiences take place in a learning environment which also influences what is learned. 2. Hidden Curriculum 2.1. 2.2. It lies outside the official organizational context of teaching. It is taught implicitly rather than explicitely, by the school experience. It consists of the unwritten rules, conventions, folkways and values of the culture known as school. It is shaped by factors like socioeconomic status and background experiences of the teachers and students 3. Recommended Curriculum The curriculum recommended by scholars, professional associations, reform commissions and policy makers 4 5 6 7. Written Curriculum Supported Curriculum Taught Curriculum Tested Curriculum The curriculum embodied in approved state and district curriculum guides The curriculum reflected in and shaped by resources allocated to support or deliver it The curriculum that an observer would see in action as the teacher taught

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The set of learnings assessed in teacher-made tests, district developed tests and standardized tests 8. Learned Curriculum All the changes in values, perceptions and behaviour that occur as a result of school experience. 9. Futuristic Curriculum The futuristic curriculum embodies a learner-centered approach to education in which students come to understand their strengths and weaknesses as learners and in which students are able to be empowered to become life-long learners. Learning experiences are designed to assist students to integrate new knowledge and to refine this new knowledge towards new insights by comparing, constrasting, inducing, deducing and analyzing. In addition, learning experiences provide opportunities for students to use knowledge meaningfully for informed decision-making and for critical, creative and futuristic thinking and problem-solving. The three approaches to implement this vision are: content will be provided through multiple representations with multiple strategies for acting upon it curriculum will be constructed as modules and accessed via networks materials, experiences and supports will be drawn from a wide range of sources and integrated into the core structure of the curriculum 10. Curriculum Model Based on a body of theory about teaching and learning. It is targeted to needs and characteristics of a particular group of learners It has outline approaches, methods and procedures for implementation. Curriculum models like Tylerian model, model Taba and Stenhouse model of process 11. Tylers model of curriculum design 11.1 Tylers theory was based on four fundamental questions: (i) (ii) (iii) (iv) What educational purposes should the school seek to attain? What educational experiences can be provided that are likely to attain these purposes? How can these educational experiences be effectively organized? How can we determine whether these purposes are being attained?

11.2 He placed an emphasis on the formulation of behavioural objectives. According to him, since the real purpose of education is not to have the instructor perform certain activities but to bring about significant changes in the students pattern of behaviour, it becomes important to recognize that any

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statements of objectives of the school should be a statement of changes to take place in the students. 11.3 The attraction of this way of approaching curriculum theory and practice is that it is systematic and has considerable organizing power. Central to this approach is the formulation of behavioural objectives- providing a clear notion of outcome so that content and method may be organized and the results evaluated. 12. Model Taba 12.1 Curriculum as a plan for action and it is a bottom-up approach to curriculum where the teacher has a major role to perform. 12.2 According to Taba, there is a definite order in creating a curriculum and held that teachers should help in tha development process. There are seven steps in the development of a curriculum that is: 13. diagnosis of needs formulation of objectives selection of content organization of content selection of learning experiences organization of learning activities evaluation

Curriculum as a process (Stenhouse) Another way of looking at curriculum theory and practice is via a process. In this sense, curriculum is not a physical thing, but rather the interaction of teachers, students and knowledge. In other words, curriculum is what actually happens in the classroom and what people do to prepare and evaluate. It is an active process and links with the practical form of reasoning set out by Aristotle. Stenhouse defined curriculum as an attempt to communicate the essential principles and features of an educational proposal in such a form that it is open to critical scrutiny and capable of effective translation into practice A curriculum should provide a basis for planning a course, studying it empirically and considering the grounds of its justification. It should offer: Planning: principle for the selection of content- what is to be learned and taught principles for the development of a teaching strategy- how it is to be learned and taught principles for the making of decisions about sequence teachers

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guidance as to the feasibility of implementing the curriculum in varying school contexts, pupil contexts, environments and peer-group situations information about the variability of effects in differing contexts and on different pupils and understanding of the causes of the variation in relation

to justification: a formulation of the intention or aim of the curriculum which is accessible to critical scrutiny. This process model looks into curriculum as a form of specification about the practice of teaching. It is a way of translating any educational idea into a hypothesis testable in practice. It invites critical testing rather than acceptance. Given the uniqueness of each classroom setting, it means that any proposal, even at school level, needs to be tested, and verifed by each teacher in his/her classroom. It is not like a curriculum package which is designed to be delivered almost anywhere. Outcomes are no longer the central and defining feature. Rather than tightly specifying behavioural objectives and methods in advance, what happens in this model of curriculum theory and practice is that content and means develop as teachers and students work together. The learners in this model are not objects to be acted upon. They have a clear voice in the way that the sessions evolve. The focus is on interactions. This can mean that attention shifts from teaching to learning. A process approach to curriculum theory and practice tends towards making the process of learning the central concern of the teacher. 14. Factors influencing the formulation and changes in the curriculum 14.1 Government when a government adopts a policy to implement a curriculum like the teaching of science and mathematics in schools ; this will bring out new emphasis in these fields in the nations school. 14.2 Goals and their priorities - Aims, goals and objectives,values holds for an educational program. This is to help the students learn to participate effectively. A community or a school faculty recognize these goals in this particular context is not possible. 14.3 Content of the Curriculum

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- Attention on the selection of content is an important curriculum consideration. 14.4 Individual Needs - A curriculum is formulated based on the needs of the individual such as interest, basic skills (3R) and wholesome development of the child Individual needs are fulfilled to enable the student to acquire social skills, able to understand oneself, develop interest and potentials and character development. 14.5 Need of the society and nation 15. society wants its members to acquire basic skills; basic concepts and to fulfill the aspiration of society, ambition and ideology of the nation curriculum to disseminate knowledge and training to students to enable improve the way of life of the population emphasizes on values, sentiment, knowledge and skills to ensure societal techniques in life from the political, social and economical point of view. 14.6 Universal Needs students to inculcate universal understanding and cooperation

stability, individual motivation and behaviour controls. The Integrated Primary School curriculum 15.1 Primary education is divided into two levels. At level one, that is from Year 1 to 3, the emphasis is on acquiring strong reading, writing, and arithmetical skills. At level two, that is from Year Four to Six, the mastery of these skills are reinforced and emphasis is given to building a strong foundation in content and basic sciences. An assessment examination at Year Six is used to evaluate student performance. Besides this, continous school-based assessments are carried out at all levels. 15.2 Objectives of the Integrated Primary School curriculum: to master Bahasa Melayu to master the basic language skills to develop and improve intellectual capacities which include rational, to master arithmetic skills and use them in their daily lives to master learning and thinking skills to master English as second language to develop leadership qualities and self confidence to be sensitive towards man and the environment

critical and creative thinking

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to master scientific and technical skills to understand and appreciate culture and participate in recreational to look after ones health and physical fitness to master the basics of entrepreneurship and productivity to acquire the skills of reading, reciting and understanding the meaning of to strengthen the fundamentals of aqidah(belief in God) and practice of to inculcate patriotism to develop talent and creativity to develop positive attitudes

activities

verses in Al-Quran moral values

15.3 The list of subjects for the primary school: Core: Bahasa Melayu, English Language Chinese Language* Tamil Language* Mathematics Science Local Studies Islamic Education(Muslim Students) Moral Studies ( Non-Muslim students)

* for national-type schools only Compulsory: Health Education Physical Education Living skills Art Education Music Education

Additional Chinese Language Tamil Language Arabic Language (Communication)

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16.

The Integrated Secondary School Curriculum 16.1 Secondary school offers a comprehensive education programme. The curriculum includes a wide range of subjects from the arts and sciences as well as vocational and technical subjects that provide a practical bias and a hands-on approach to learning. With the emphasis placed on technological literacy, the smart school concept was introduced in 1996. 16.2 The Lower Secondary level coves a period of three years (Form 1 to Form 3). Students from rhe national primary schools enter Form 1 whereas students from the Chinese and Tamil schools proceed to a transition year (Remove Class) before entering Form 1. This Remove class is for students to acquire sufficient proficiency in Bahasa Melayu which is the medium of instruction in secondary schools. However, students who have performed well in the Primary School Achievement Test are allowed to proceed directly to Form 1. 16.3 Students moved into the more specialized fields of study at the upper secondary after the Lower Secondary Assessment. Based on choice and aptitude, students enter either the arts or the science strems in the academic schools or religious schools. Several technical and vocational schools provide technically based academic education and preemployment skills. All schools whether academic, technical, vocational, religious or special education prepare students for the Malaysian Certificate of Education Open Certification examination at the end of two years of upper secondary education.

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CHAPTER 3: TEACHING AS A PROFESSION

Overview:
In this chapter, we shall cover Concepts of a professional and non-professional Code of Ethics Accountability towards school, profession, nation and self

Key Terms
Profession Professional Non-professional Qualities of teaching-behaviour,mentor,model,leader Code of Ethics Accountability

Further Reading
Darling-Hammond, L.(1991) Teachers and Teaching:Signs of a changing profession. In The Handbook of research on teacher education. Houston(ed.) New York: Macmillan Day,C. (1999). Developing Teachers: The Challenges of Lifelong Learning. London: Falmer Press. Hoyle,E. & John,P. (1995). Professional Knowledge and professional practice. London: Cassel Lieberman, M. (1995). Education as a profession. New Jersey: Prentice-Hall http://www.mpls.k12.mm.us/departments/CIT2/ethics.htm Ryan,K. & Cooper, J.M.(1998). Those who can,Teach. Boston: Houghton Miflin Co.

Suggested Input
1. Profession A profession is an occupation which performs a crucial social function. To accomplish this function it requires a considerable degree of skill requires a body of systematic knowledge grounded in theory. This acquisition of this body of knowledge and the development of specific skill entails a lengthly period of higher education. The period of education and training involves the process of socialization into professional values. These professional values tends to center

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on the pre-eminence of essential for the professional to have the freedom or autonomy to make his/her own judgements with regard to appropriate practice. 2. Professional 2.1 Professional is one who has (i) a specialized knowledge base(technical culture);(ii) commitment to meeting client needs(service ethic) ;(iii) strong collective identity-professional commitment( professional commitment); dan (iv) collegial as against bureaucratic control over practice and professional standards (professional autonomy). 2.2 Characteristics of professionals: possess a specialized skill enabling them to offer a specialized service undergo intellectual and practical training in a well-defined area of study maintain detachment and integrity in exercising personal judgement on behalf of a client establish direct, personal relations with a client, based on confidence,faith and trust collectively have a sense of responsibility for maintaining the competence and integrity of the professional as a whole tend or required to avoid certain manners of attracting business are organized in bodies which, with or without state intervention, are concerned to provide the machinery for testing competence and regulating standards of competence and conduct 3. Non Professional The profession is not a unique service. Training is not rigorous that is a short period of training. And entrance to the occupation is not especially competitive, particularly on intellectual grounds. There is little decision-making power as most important decisions that affects the person s daily lives, even those directly on the standards of their own profession are made by administrator. There is little accountability and little involvement in activities professional organization 4. Qualities of a teacher 4.1 Leader who can inspire and influence students through expert and referent power but never coercive power. This teacher knows his students well and is kind and respectful towards his students. He has high standards and expectations coexisting with encouragement, support and flexibility. The teacher empower students and get them to do things of which they did not think they were capable. 4.2 Coach/guide who helps students to improve on their skills and insights 4.3 Disseminator of knowledge and skills

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4.4 Role model to the student; practises what he/she preaches. He/She upholds moral values and humanitarian principles in all his actions. Teachers conduct their day by-day doing in such a way that their behaviour can be cherished by the learners. Teachers should be a human model for learners therefore, they must uphold all codes of ethical conduct that are necessary and essential in human modeling and moral education. 4.5 Innovator, creative, resourceful and encourages diversity and individuality in his students. 5. Code of Ethics - Teachers will educate students to high standards of achievement. The teacher shall use best professional practices and materials and the teacher is knowledgeable of and delivers the standards-based curriculum Teacher shall engage in practices and select materials that include all students, celebrate diversity and never exclude them from opportunities on the basis of their race, gender, ethnicity, religion, national origin, language, ability or the status, behaviour or beliefs of their parents The teacher is committed to developing the skill sets needed to best The teacher creates a classroom environment that is respectful, accelerate the learning of the students currently in their classrooms emotionally secure and physically safe for students 5.2 Ethical Responsibilities to Family/Community - The teacher shall inform families of program philosophy, policies and personnel qualifications and explain why we teach as we do, which should be in accordance with our ethical responsibilities to students The teacher shall involve families in significant decisions affecting their student and regularly communicate student progress with families The teacher shall inform the family of accidents involving their student, of risks such as exposures to contagious disease that may result in infection and of occurrences that might result in emotional stress The teacher shall maintain confidentialilty and shall respect the familys right to privacy, refraining from disclosure of confidential information and intrusion into family life, except when a students welfare is at risk The teacher shall be objective and accurate in reporting the knowledge upon which we base our programs, assessments and professional 5.1 Ethical responsibilites to students

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practices 5.3 The teacher shall cooperate and team with other professionals who work The teacher shall exercise care in expressing views regarding students. Statements shall be respectful and based on firsthand knowledge Ethical Responsibilities to Colleagues - The teacher shall show respect for personal dignity and for the diversity found among staff members, and to resolve matters collegially - The teacher shall exercise care in expressing views regarding the professional behaviour or conduct of co-workers and/or students. - The teacher agrees to carry out the program at the site to which we are assigned. When we do not agree with the program policies, we shall first attempt to effect change through constructive action within the organization - Teachers who do not meet program standards shall be informed of areas of concern and, when possible, assisted in improving their performance - In making assessments and recommendations, the teacher shall make judgements based on fact and relevant to the interests of students and programs 6. Accountability 6.1 Teacher accountability refers to the responsibility towards ones teaching profession 6.2 Job accountability o o o o o o o o o o o o Performs curriculum and co-curriculum activities Follow job procedures Internalize ones work ethics Responsible and perform job with dedication and commitment knowledge practitioner and educate citizens of Malaysia inculcate moral values, develop and preserve our culture realization of the national philosophy of education and vision of the country instill national integration develop a progressive generation disseminate knowledge and skills to students educate and inculcate moral values inculcate good behaviours with students and families

6.3 Accountability towards nation

6.4 Accountability towards students and parents

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develop students potentials intellectually, spiritually, emotionally and physically

6.5 Accountability towards self o o o o as a model for students maintain good behaviours update oneself on current knowledge and skills perform ones job sincerely

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CHAPTER 4: THE TEACHER AND THE WORLD OF EDUCATION

Overview:
In this chapter, we shall cover Roles and responsibilities of the teacher as an effective knowledge, skill and value disseminator in the classroom Role as an educator in the teaching profession

Key Terms
Knowledge practitioner Skills practitioner Educare Educere Social agent Agent of Change Consultant Mentor Manager Researcher Patriot

Further Reading
Brooks,V. & Sikes, P. (1997). The Good Mentor Guide: Initial Teacher Education in Secondary Schools. Buckingham: Open University Press. Cairney,T. (1987).Teachers as researchers. In Barbara Comper & Hancock, J. Developing Teachers. Melbourne: Thomas Nelson Fletcher,S.( 2000). Mentoring in schools; A handbook of good practice. London: Kogan Press Kinchheloe, J. L. (1991). Teachers as researchers: Qualitative Inquiry as a path to empowerment. London: The Falmer Press Tomlinson,P. (1995). Understanding Mentoring.Buckingham: Open University Press.

Suggested Input
1. Knowledge and skill practitioner

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1.1.

The teacher is a professional is an educator and a practitioner in knowledge and skills. He/she is an effective practitioner and analyst who, through teacher education, is competent in applying his/her theoretical knowledge in various pedagogic contexts. He/she provides education for discipline, for knowledge, for character, for life, for growth, for personal fulfillment and aesthetic refinement.

1.2.

The practitioner understands the central concepts, tools of inquiry, and structures of the discipline he or she teaches and creates learning experiences that make these aspects of subject matter meaningful for students.

1.3.

He/She understands how children learn and develop and can provide learning opportunities that support their intellectual, social and personal development. He/she also understands and uses a variety of instructional strategies to encourage students development of critical thinking, problem solving and performance skills.

1.4.

He/She is eclectic in the sense of being able to synthesise rather than merely select what is available. The teacher should possess the ability to harmonically arrange what has been selected to be offered to the students.

1.5.

The practitioner has to adopt technology as a means for becoming more effective in producing his/her own materials, accessing the Internet to gain information, ideas and core materials which will provide the basis for presentation to the students.

2.

Educare and Educere 2.1 Education arises from two Latin terms that is educare and educere. Educare is to lead, draw or bring out; to unsheathe. The etymology emphasizes the militaristic aspect of the word; the word involved leading or bringing out the troops or unsheathing ones sword- the notion of preparing for battle. 2.2 Questions pertaining to the effects that emerge when one thinks of education in this way: What or where are we trying to lead students to? What are we trying to bring out of them? Can we truly draw out some pre-determined intellectual and personal qualities? Do we really think that children are all really alike, the same inside, and that if we locate the best method, then we can teach them all and they will learn the same thing? 2.3 Educere is to rear or bring up; allow to emerge as needed. If educere is the act of emerging ,then as teachers, we must begin to ask ourselves: What will emerge? ; Can we control what emerges? and Should we try and control

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what learning emerges or what the students response to your teaching will be? 2.4 Educere is very parental, almost feminine approach to education because it focuses on the nurturing and caring or what emerges when a student is engaged in the learning process. Educere emphasizes what has become understood in Western civilization as the feminine principle. Educere is indeed the act of nurturing the young, being creative, compassionate, giving. These are perceived as positive qualities. However, at the same time there is the potential for nurturing to turn into the act of controlling and oppressing, as in the mother who hovers over too much and does not allow enough freedom for growth. 2.5 Educere emphasizes the main principle of leading the young forth for some grand, great purpose; the act of instilling discipline, decisiveness, willingness to die for a cause. As a teacher, this type wants to marshal the students towards something beyond him or her self, which can be a wonderful moments of growth intellectual and emotional. As a teacher one has to discover which principle he or she embodies and reflect on the positive and negatives of each. 3. Social Agent 3.1 The teaching/learning process is basically and essentially an interaction between humans. This interaction is carried within a social context. There are, generally, clearly defined teacher and student roles in these learning environments. The student tends to expect that the teacher will influence the learning environments. The student tends to expect that the teacher will influence the learning process to some significant extent. 3.2 The role of the teacher as a social agent is an important part of the learning process. This is very clear as different individuals interact with a teacher and other students to widely varying degrees. 3.3 The teachers role may be include the management of the social interaction that is conducted as part of the learning process. In the primary school, the teacher has a large role in guiding the behaviour of the young pupils. Often the teacher is required to set boundaries as to where pupils may be at a particular time, whether they may talk or need to be quiet and listening and what activities they should be performing. 3.4 The teacher plays a number of other social roles in the teaching/learning process. The teacher is often a motivator for pupils, encouraging or reproving them as appropriate. The approval of the teacher can be a strong motivating factor,

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particularly for younger pupils. The teacher is also an arbiter of success; measuring and quantifying pupils efforts. The teacher may also pass on cultural and social values. 3.5 The role of the teacher as social agent is an important part of the learning process, it is also clear that different individuals interact with a teacher and other students to widely varying degrees. These individuals are self-motivated, do not require any third party encouragement to learn, and can seek out and assimilate the required body of knowledge. 4. Agent of Change 4.1 A change agent is an individual who influences clients innovation decisions in a direction deemed desirable by a change agency. As a change agent, one has to directly work with the teachers to adopt an innovation and encourage them to become opinion leaders in their own interpersonal network. 4.2 One has to teach the teachers to use the various pieces of technology and it goes further by assisting the teachers to learn to be constructivist teachers that can incorporate technology into their curriculum. It is this balance of bringing the technology into the curriculum through constructivist methods that is the innovation. 4.3 Agent of change develops his/her own professional learning which has encompassed strategies and interpersonal skills essential for managing change within the school. Through significant steps, one has to update and improve the culture of the school, to influence the staff to become more collaborative and reflective in their practice, to be flexible and more responsive to the positive outcomes of change and the development of their own professional learning, creating a learning community. 5. Researcher 5.1 Teacher as a researcher involves the commitment to systematic questioning of ones own teaching as a basis for development. The commitment and skills to study ones own teaching and concern to questioning and testing theory in practice by using skills and readiness to allow other teachers to observe your work directly or through recordings and to discuss it with them on an honest basis. 5.2 Teacher plays a role in investigating pedagogical problems through inquiry. According to Dewey (1929) teachers investigations not only lead to knowledge about the school but also led to good teaching. 5.3 The benefits for teachers who attempt to become researchers in their own classrooms are: the development of clearer theory of language and learning

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6. 6.1

increased knowledge and understanding of classroom practice, and increased teaching skills easier collaboration with pupils and the potential to develop a shared commitment to the desired improvements

Mentor A mentor is one who guides and supports trainees to ease them through difficult transitions; it is about smoothing the way, enabling, reassuring as well as directing, managing and instructing. He/She should be able to unblock the ways to change by building self confidence, self esteem and a readiness to act as well as to engage in ongoing constructive interpersonal relationships. 6.2 Individual engaged in a one-to-one teaching/learning relationship in which the mentor serves as a fundamentally important model with respect to values, beliefs, philosophies and attitudes as well as a source of more specific information. 6.3 6.4 Mentoring implies a close relationship within which the model may be a role model, consultant, advisor, source of wisdom even a sort of protector. Mentoring is defined as a nurturing process in which a more skilled or more experienced person, serving as a role model, teachers, sponsors, encourages, counsels and befriends a less skilled or less experienced person for the purpose of promoting the latters professional and/or personal development. Mentoring functions are carried out within the context of an ongoing, caring relationship between the mentor and the protg 6.5 Mentoring is used to describe a combination of coaching, counseling and assessment where a classroom teacher in a school is delegated responsibility for assisting newly qualified teachers in their professional development 6.6 A mentor tries to develop individuals strengths to maximize their professional and personal potential and also that of students who come under their care within a classroom situation.

7.

Manager 7.1 The teacher structure the learning environment. In this role, all decisions and actions required to maintain order in the classroom, such as laying down rules and procedures for learning activities. 7.2 Teacher must manage a classroom environment. Teachers are environmental engineers who organize the classroom space to fit their goals and to maximize learning. The way the physical space of the classroom is organized can either help or hinder learning.

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7.3 It involves modeling a positive attitude towards the curriculum and towards school and learning in general. Teachers who reveal a caring attitude towards learning and the learning environment help to instill and reinforce similar attitudes in their students. 7.4 Teachers are required to manage and process great amounts of clerical work. There are papers to be read and graded, tests to be scored, marks to be entered, attendance records and files to be maintained, notes and letters to be written etc.

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CHAPTER 5: THE TEACHER AND PROFESSIONAL SKILLS

Overview:
In this chapter, we shall cover The mastery of professional skills by teachers in the school

Key Terms
Learning skill Thinking skill Planning Facilitation Communication Management

Further Reading
Cullingford,C. (1995). The Effective teacher. London: Cassel Dean, J. (1991).Professional Development in school. Milton Keynes: Open University Press. Ghaye,K. & Ghaye,A. 1998. Teaching and Learning through Critical Reflective Practice. London: David Fulton Publishers. Schon,D.A. 1987. Educating the reflective practitioner. San Franscisco: Jossey-B. Travers,J.F., Elliot,S.N. & Kratochwill,T.R. (1993). Effective Teaching,Effective Learning. Iowa: Brown & Benchmark Pub.

Suggested Input
1. Learning Skill

1.1.

Learning skills refer to the skill that teachers have to attain when collecting, processing and summarizing data with the aim of developing oneself towards life long learning. It is also the ability to obtain knowledge in the field of cognition, affection and psychomotor through observation, reading, writing, imitation, memorization, understanding, analysis, synthesis, evaluation and memory.

1.2.

It refers to the ability to receive accurate signals, process information, and store in the memory and to apply it in problem solving. There is the need to acquire learning skills such as observing, making assumptions, understanding, remembering, thinking and interpreting to produce effective learning.

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1.3.
1.4. 1.5. 1.6.

Importance of learning skills:

enable a teacher to obtain knowledge systematically and meaningfully. inculcate interest and liking for learning and always increase their knowledge and life long intellectual skill apply learning skills in all types of situation inculcate self discipline train individual to read with speed and aptly train individual to obtain data efficiently train individual to process data effectively increase ones memory promote and sharpen ones interest and potential help individual to attain referencing skills in the library train individual to encounter learning challenges motivate individual to life long education train individual to manage time effectively The three processes in learning skills are collection of data, processing data and making report. The collection of data consists of: active listening note taking make reference interview questioning for information speed reading critical reading Active listening listen with purpose listen to obtain direction listen to identify elements in a text listen to be able to repeat Note-taking: Note-taking while reading, listening or viewing is a strategy for recording and organizing information in order to understand and remember it. As such, it is a way of using writing as a tool learning. There are different strategies for notetaking but regardless of the type used, a key to successful note-taking is regular review and revision of notes, which is emphasized here.

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Note-taking enhances ones comprehension of instructional material. It helps he/she use ones notes as learning/study aids and shows he/she how to use note-taking independently. Cornell system of note-taking- 5 Rs : record, reduce, recite, reflect and review. Record: draw a vertical line down your paper. The left side of your paper , should be 1/3 the width of the paper, the right side 2/3. Jot down notes on the right side of the line. Reduce: Use the column on the left side of the line to reduce your notes to key words and phrases that describe the most important information you need to remember. Recite: Fold back or cover the note taking column with only the key words showing, read each one in turn and recite anything that you understand or remember about the concept. Reflect: Take a break. Think about the information in your notes without looking back at them. State what you do and dont understand about the topic. Decide how you are going to clear up any misunderstandings and do it. 1.7. Review: Review your notes at regular intervals so that you stay familiar with the information that they contain. Make notes: Making notes is an activity done after note-taking. It consists of the process of arranging, completing and refining notes taken. Process in making notes are: check notes taken; arranging the notes in order; arranging information according to categories or specific order; taking notes with reference to the original information. 1.8. Notes as graphics Teachers can keep notes in the form of graphic organizers, arranging ideas in the page in ways that make relationships clear. Graphic organizer is a scheme for arranging information on a page so that the relationships among the concepts are made clear visually. For instance, a causal relationship might be shown with an arrow pointing from the cause to the effect, or subordinate details might be shown radiating from a main idea like spokes from the center of a wheel. For some learners, information is easier to process if the ideas are arranged graphically instead of in a linear fashion as is the case with traditional outlines, lists or pages of notes. For most learners, such visual displays can be aided to

32

comprehension and retention of information. Graphic organizers help teacher understand relationship among ideas, refines and extends comprehension of information, helps teachers see learned information from new perspectives and encourages teachers to try them as an independent study strategy. 1.9. Make References: It refers to usage of books from the library. Teachers should be able to make references on books from public libraries, school libraries, libraries in higher institute of learning, teacher activity centers. 1.10. Questioning skills Teachers are able motivate student learning and thinking. Teachers should be able to use questions of higher-order so that students think critically such as able to explain, expound and voice their own opinions. 1.11. Speed Reading: There are two types of speed reading that is: skimming and scanningSkimming means speed reading with the aim of obtaining facts generally while scanning refers to speed reading with the aim of obtaining specific information from any resource. 1.12. Critical Reading: Critical reading helps teachers to understand content of the subject matter faster and will remain longer in the memory. There are two techniques of critical reading, that is: SQ3R and KWL. SQ3R refers to survey, question, read recite and review Survey: Get a good idea of the chapters content . Survey the title, the introduction, the summary, pictures and maps, chapter questions, heading, subheadings and words in special print (boldface, italics, capital letters) Question: After carefully surveyed the material change all the headings into questions. Questions help you learn because to find the answers, you need to read actively. Questions challenge you and give you a purpose for trying to master material. Write a list of all your questions and keep them in the same order that the headings appear in the book. Leave enough space after each questions for answers. Read: Read the question you wrote for the heading.Then read the text that follows the heading to find the answer. Do the same thing to find the answers to other questions written.

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Recite: Once you read a section, stop and describe in your own words the major ideas that were presented. Since text books are divided into sections with headings and subheading, recite whenever you reach one of these convenient stopping places.

Review: you are ready to go back over the material and review it. Survey again what you have read. Skim over the headings of the chapter- and ask yourself what they mean and what information they contain. Recite important ides under each heading.

KWL (developed by Donna Ogle) prepares you to learn by helping you tap into your present knowledge, identify what you need to find out and sort through the information youve learned. K stands for what you know; W stands for what you WANT to learn; L stands for what youve learned. The KWL process allows you to zero in on your study topic and use your time most effectively. Each step keeps you focused on your study goals.

2.0 Thinking Skills 2.1 Thinking skill is a cognitive process broken down into a set of explicit steps which are then used to guide thinking. Thinking skills allow ones cognitve system to function more efficiently. 2.2 Teachers need thinking skills and strategies that will enable them adapt to constant change. Critical thinkers are self-correcting and they discover their weaknesses and act to remove obstacles and faults. 2.3 Critical thinking is reasonable reflective thinking that is focused on deciding what to believe or do.It has become an activity both practical and reflective that has reasonable belief or action as its goal. 2.4 It comprises the mental processes, strategies and representations people use to solve problems, make decisions, and learn new concepts. It has to do with organizing, analyzing, evaluating or describing what is already there. Among the critical thinking skills are inferring, comparing, compare and contrast , analyze, supporting a statement, decision making, ordering, evaluation, creating groups, investigation and experimenting. 2.5 Teachers have to internalize the reflective thinking until reflective questions and analysis become like the inner speech or self talk which occurs frequently and spontaneously for the experienced teacher. 2.6 Dewey contends that teachers should be trained in analyzing and defining principles behind the reflective techniques. Reflecting involves active, persistent and careful consideration of behaviour or practice. It is the means for meeting and

34

responding to the problems. The more reflectivity that occurs, the better the quality of teaching. 2.7 The teacher as a reflective practitioner is seen as thoughtful persons intrinsically motivated to analyze a situation, set goals, plan and monitor actions, evaluate results and reflect on their own professional thinking. The reflective practitioner is one who can think while acting and thus can respond to the uncertainty, uniqueness and conflict involved in the situations in which professionals practice. 2.8 There are five components of reflective thinking: (1) recognizing an educational dilemma;(2) responding to a dilemma by recognizing both the similarities to other situations and the special qualities of the particular situation; (3) framing and reframing the dilemma,(4) experimenting with the dilemma to discover the consequences and implications of various solutions;(5) examining the intended and unintended consequences of an implemented solution and evaluating the solution by determining whether the consequences are desirable or not. 3.0 Planning 3.1 Effective planning is essential to good time management. It can be broken down into long-term, mediumterm and short-term planning. Teachers have to plan what they want to achieve for the year. 3.2 A useful technique for planning in the long-term is to list all the tasks that have to be accomplished to achieve the long-term goal. Write them on a grid so that you can see the deadline for each aspect. 3.3 Having set the long term plan , the teacher need to transfer the tasks to a medium term plan. In transferring the tasks from the long term plan to the medium term, one is aware of the times of term which are busy enough without adding in extra work. 3.4 Short term planning amount to listing out all the tasks for the week. The effectiveness as a planner will depend to an extent on whether one can do the tasks without interruption in the times that have been allocated. 3.5 In short, a teacher as a planner performs the following tasks: teaching strategies that are congruent with purpose; plans that reflect the diversity of the classroom; shows an ability to speak and write about the significance of acquired knowledge and cumulative experience understands theoretical and practical aspects of curriculum development and implementation; demonstrates a thorough understanding of one or more teaching models;

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4.1

makes conscious, creative decisions about the components of lesson design; develops on a continuing basis a repertoire of effective and positive classroom management techniques presents materials in a variety of ways to accommodate different dominant learning styles; exhibits high standards of professional ethics regarding colleagues

4.0 Communication Skills Communication refer s to social interaction performed through messages. Messages are formally coded events, symbols or signals or representational events which are of shared significance in a culture and which are produced for the purpose of evoking responses. 4.2 The ability to communicate is not just a matter of being able to articulate or demonstrate great wit. It is a two way process, of listening as much as talking, of encouraging others to talk as much as talking oneself. 4.3 Skills in communication also include interpersonal skills. Teachers need to effectively interact with his students and colleagues. The types of interpersonal skills are: Attending behaviour: teacher shares students feelings and he wishes to help identifies and accepts the different emotions or objectives underlying each students answer, through eye contact, facial expressions and verbal encouragement Reflection : teacher states an opinion, a wish, a belief or preference to the class or when he asks a question which reflects his personal view. The teacher provides direction, suggest alternatives or redirect thinking among students towards the real issues. Inventory questioning : Teacher uses a set of questions to help students describe more clearly or to become more forthright in thought feeling or action. He rephrases questions and uses different words which seek to assist students. Encouraging alternatives : teacher acts to get student to clarify further what he is saying,for example, a teacher will provide an answer or a suggestion as an alternative, then seek two or more alternatives from students.

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5.0 Management Skills 5.1 Management means making things work or creating opportunities for the organization,which means enabling it to function efficiently and effectively. 5.2 Management skills are as follows: ability to articulate and implement aims and policies. Teacher must be able to lead their colleagues in thinking about the aims of the school and how to turn them into action. Articulation of the curriculum philosophy. Teacher should be able to lead thinking about curriculum, including continuity and progression, so that coherence is ensured for the individual student Management of care and discipline Management of people : managers need to deal with people not only within the school,but also outside it, such as parents, governors. They need skill in eliciting ideas from colleagues and drawing them together; such skills as counseling, discussion leadership, presentation skills, negotiating skills and communication. Management of resources Evaluation is an important part of management, whether individuals or of the school as a whole. 6.0 Facilitation 6.1 Facilitator of learning means that the teachers role is to provide the type of the environment conducive to the kind of learning the teacher wishes to encourage. Frank Smith(1983) identifies three aspects of the learning process, which he refers to as demonstration, engagement and sensitivity. For learning to take place, the environment must provide demonstrations of what is to be learnt. 6.2 The quality of any learning experience will depend on the nature and clarity of the demonstrations, the degree of sensitivity that learners display towards them, and the opportunities afforded for using and experimenting with new knowledge. Although teachers may not have a great deal of control over the sensitivity of learners, there is much they can do to create demonstrations which increase, or focus,the learners sensitivity, and to provide opportunities for learners to experiment with and use new knowledge. 6.3 Facilitator assesses the needs of their learners before initiating classroom strategies to meet these needs. Teachers who facilitate learning do not set up demonstrations that are unnecessarily repetitious and boring for children. They provide only what the children need, even if this means that some of the best prepared demonstrations go unused because the children already know what

37

they show.

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CHAPTER 6 : THE TEACHER AND SELF DEVELOPMENT

Overview:
In this chapter, we shall cover The sources of motivation, knowledge and skill enhancement The teacher as a learner in self development programme

Key Terms
Action research Reflection-on action Reflection-in action Reflection about action E-learning In-service courses Collaboration

Further Reading
Elliot,J. (1991). Action research for Educational Change. Open University Press Jolliffe,A.,Ritter,J. & Stevens, D.(2001). The online learning handbook: Developing and using Web-Based learning. London: Kogan Page Ltd. Kember,D. (2000). Action Learning and Action Research. London: Kogan Page Ltd Kemmis,S. & McTaggart, R. (1988). The Action Research Planner. Victoria: Deakin University Press. Moon, J.A. (2000). Reflection in learning & Professional Development: Theory & Practice. London: Kogan Page Ltd. http://www.learnativity.com http:// www.stanford.edu/dept/SUSE/csm/features/collaboration http://www.etc.sccoe.k12.ca.us/2002/01_currint/02 currsumm3.html

Suggested Input
1.0 Action Research 1.1 The study of a social situation with a view to improving the quality of action within it 1.2 The study of a social situation, involving the participants themselves as researchers, with a view to improving the quality of action within it.

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1.3 Action research is concerned with social practice; aimed towards improvement ;a cyclical process; pursued by systematic inquiry; a reflective process; participative and determined by the practitioners. 1.4 Objectives of action research 2.0 2.1 develop and improve practice through research based on the interest of concerned parties develop knowledge and practical understanding of the research process develop professional knowledge of teachers develop and improve education as a discipline carried out by teachers directly involved with the social situation studied carried out in groups and collaboratively with the commitment to increase their practical understanding begin with practical questions arising from daily teacher routine with the aim of developing practical situation and knowledge on teaching practice continuous process: ascertain focus, clarifying situation, develop strategies and present findings journal writing to record reflections and progress on the research reflective process by teachers Reflection-on-action is the form of reflection that occurs after action and relates, via verbalized or non-verbalized thought, to the action that the person has taken-in other words, it is a relatively narrow concept that is retrospective and has a role in learning, in informing action and in theory building. 2.2 It is a systematic, considered process of deliberation enabling analysis, reconstruction and reframing in order to plan for further teaching and learning. 2.3 3.0 It opens up possibilities for talking with others about teaching

1.5 Characteristics of action research

Reflection-on- action

Reflection-in-action 3.1 Reflection-in-action occurs in association with action and guides the process of action via knowledge in use, which is derived from theory in use, and makes limited contact with espoused theory and according to Schon, reflection-in-action only occurs in situations where the action yields unexpected consequences and is not part of actions that go according to plan. A conscious process and the knowing-in action that led up to it,

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asking ourselves What is this?, and at the same time,How have I been thinking about it? Our thoughts turn back on the surprising phenomenon and at the same time, back on itself. It is thinking while in the thick of things or thinking on ones feet 3.2 Reflection-in-action has a critical function, questioning the assumptional structure of the knowing-in-action. We think critically about the thinking that got us into this opportunity and in the process, restructure strategies of action, understandings of phenomena, or ways of framing problems 3.3 It gives rise to on-the-spot experiment. We think and try out new actions intended to explore the newly observed phenomena, test our tentative understandings of them, or affirm the moves we have invented to change things for the better. 4.0 Reflection- about-action 4.1 This represents a broader, critical stance which involves inquiry into the moral,ethical,political and instrumental issues embedded in teachers everyday thinking and practice. 4.2 Professionals exercise both responsibility and accountability for decisions that they make in their teaching and maintain broader understandings of the interrelationships between teaching purposes and practices. 5.0 Characteristics of Reflective Practice 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 Reflective practice involves the mental process of reflecting, which may or may not be characterized by what we have called being reflective The subject matter may be refer to reflection on the everyday events of practice, paying more or less attention to the setting of the practice Reflective practice may refer to reflection on the everyday events of practice or the conditions that shape reflection, such as political influences Reflection may be ongoing or a reaction to a specific event or an unexpected occurrence or observation of a problem; it is characterized by states of uncertainity ; it may have an ethical or moral content 5.5 5.6 5.7 The end point of reflection in reflective practice may not be resolution of an issue, but attainment of a better understanding of it. Reflection will have involved the process of thinking, but it may be aid by the process of articulation of the thinking orally or in written form Review and reconstruction of the ideas surrounding reflection will be aimed at understanding or resolving the issue in the context of a general aim of improving practice, specifically or generally.

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5.8 6.0

Reflective practice is usually enhanced when there is some sharing of the reflection with others

E-learning 6.1 6.2 A unifying term to describe on-line learning, web-based training and technology-based training The convergence of the Internet and learning or internet-enabled learning. It is the use of network technologies to create, foster, deliver and facilitate learning, anytime and anywhere 6.3 The delivery of individualized, comprehensive, dynamic learning content in real time, aiding the development of communities of knowledge ,linking learners and practitioners with experts 6.4 A phenomenon delivering accountability, accessibility and opportunity to allow people and organizations to keep up with the rapid changes that define the Internet world 6.5 6.6 A force that gives people and organizations the competitive edge to allow them to keep ahead of the rapidly changing global economy Web-based learning involves a diverse collection of methods and technologies and most programs include: learning materials made up of text, graphics and multimedia elements, video conferencing, chat rooms or discussion forums and the use of a Web browser. 6.7 Advantages of the Web-based learning are: can be used to deliver learning at any time to virtually any place; uses many of the elements of CD-ROM-based learning learning materials are relatively easy to update can increase the number of interactions between the learners and the event facilitator allows learners to form both informal and formal Web-based learning components allows the use of problem-and/or assignment-based learning can make use of resources already on the Internet can present real-time content using video conferencing, video streaming or discussion rooms has the ability to include multiple media such as text, graphics, audio, video and animation into the learning materials

7.0

In-service Courses

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7.1

In-service education is education inbtended to support and assists the professional development that teachers ought to experience through their working lives.

7.2

Courses are designed to provide avenues for teachers to refresh their knowledge, to improve their competencies and to bring about paradigm shift in their outlook towards educational issues.

7.3 -

The basic principles which have guided the design of in-service courses are: A teacher needs to have subject knowledge. A teacher with a sound foundation in his/her subject matter will be better able to plan for students learning based on content outcomes and to keep abreast of current developments in that specific field of knowledge.

Pedagogic knowledge is essential for managing learning. Knowledge about classroom management, teaching preparation, teaching and testing skills and the use of teaching aids are needed. Pedagogical skills such as techniques, methods , material and overall management are essential to every teacher.

Every teacher has a practical theory that is practical knowledge which is directly related to teachers actions in and experience of the classroom. Practical theory of teachers refers to private, integrated but ever-changing system of knowledge, experience and values which is relevant to teaching practice at any particular time.

The need for process knowledge which will enable teachers to become more aware of their practical theory and its implications on their classroom action. It is about ways other knowledge is developed and understood in the context of a persons experience. This knowledge is derived from the teachers awareness of himself/herself as a person, his/her own beliefs, values and attitudes towards his/her actions and relationships with other people. The content of process knowledge are reflection, self awareness, facilitation skills, effective communication, critical and thinking skills. Teachers need these skills to understand themselves as educators and to inculcate good values amongst their students.

7.4

In-service training is concerned with the need to upgrade teacher education to give teaching a professional status and to promote the development of quality teaching . It also provide opportunities for teachers to grow. Teachers are able to further themselves either for professional enrichment or professional upgrading.

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7.5

The objectives of courses that are provided to in-service teachers varied from year to year depending on the focus of the courses provided. They are as follows:

7.6

to acquaint teachers to recent teaching learning approaches; to enhance quality of instruction in classrooms; to equip teachers with competencies to create effective learning environment; to inculcate in teachers that learning as a life long process in upgrading their expertise; to enable teachers to face and overcome challenges face in the education field The training components of in-service courses are hands-on activities, usage of modules, practicum or field experience and assessment and examination

7.7

The above components reflect the emphasis on experiential learning as a form of ensuring teachers attain relevant competencies. Field experiences enable teachers to put theory into practice with the hope that such learning experiences will further enrich teachers schemata relating to the course content and activities undertaken. Examinations and assignments are designed to assess the quality of teaching and learning.

7.8

Training mechanisms in providing courses for in-service teachers are centralized training in teacher training institute, private premises; centralized training with cooperation from various agencies using State education departments and centralized training in collaboration with local and foreign universities.

8.0

Collaboration 8.1 8.2 Collaboration is to work with another or others on a joint project Research shows that teachers frequently discuss their teaching strategies with other teachers; have extensive interactions with teachers; participate in leadership activities such as mentoring and presenting at conferences and workshops. 8.3 Collaborative planning and on-going professional development supports both more thoughtful and effective teaching within the classroom and greater coherence across courses and grade levels. 8.4 Expertise in teaching comes from a process of sharing, attempting new ideas ,reflecting on practice and developing new approaches

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8.5

High quality teaching is developed by creating a deliberate repertoire of strategies and a well-sequenced plan for content that connects to students prior learning, and doing so in collaboration with others so that knowledge is shared

8.6

A framework for collaboration requires: a working relationship that is allowed to evolve and is sustained through the trust of the teacher; the belief that working together is not through compulsion but voluntary ;the development of skills and initiatives is seen as an on-going process whereby change can be implemented and supported; working together is seen as a scheduled activity which gives status to what is been developed but does not stifle the individuals own development; an open appreciation of the needs of those involved

8.7

Collaboration is seen as promoting professional growth

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CHAPTER 7: CHALLENGES OF THE TEACHING PROFESSION

Overview:
In this chapter, we shall cover The role and challenges of the teacher in the new millennium The characteristics of the teacher in the new millennium Forecast and plan for changes in education

Key Terms
Innovator Nation-builder Knowledge disseminator Interpersonal relationship agent Management of change Globalization of education

Further Reading
Arnold,R. et.al. 1991. Educating for a Change. Toronto: Doris Marshall Institute for Education and Action. Burbules,N.C. & Torres,C. (2000). Globalization and Education: critical Perpectives. London: Routledge. Beck,U. 1999. What is Globalization? Cambridge: Polity Press. Scholte,J.A. (2000). Globalization: A critical introduction. London: Palgrave. http://www.mtholyoke.edu/acad/intrel/scholte.htm http://www.unesco.org/webworld/infoethics_2/eng/papers/paper_23.htm http://www.canr.msu.edu/aee/extension/oct96.htm

Suggested Input
1.0 Innovator 1.1 Teacher as an innovator demonstrates evidence of keeping current with recent research and significant literature. He/She is involved in organizations and projects, particularly leadership roles. 1.2 He/She also implement an integrated curriculum, restructuring the learning environment through the transparent and informational use of information and communication technology. The teacher consistently works with colleagues in the

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school, ensuring ICT programs are integrated across the curriculum areas and year levels. The teacher critically reflects upon ICT skills and functional knowledge and actively addresses social, legal and ethical issue in relation to learning technologies. The teacher is actively involved in school planning and utilizes the school community to actively design ICT learning environments. 1.3 The innovator also make references and recommendations indicating excellent performance and potential for success. He/she will develop and continue to refine a well-reasoned educational philosophy that includes receptivity to new ideas. He/she also expresses strong commitment to one or more educational values. 1.4 A innovator also instigate change in small ways, collaborating with other staff, working on joint projects. He/She changes strategies, techniques, texts and materials when better ones are found and/or when existing ones no longer provide a substantive learning experience for her students. This teacher also employs a combination of lecture-discussion, simulation, service learning, cooperative learning, visual media, role-playing, guest speakers and debates and whatever is age and grade appropriate in order to accommodate diverse learning styles and to present the subject from different angles to facilitate insights and connections. This teacher values and uses students ideas about how to enhance their own learning. 1.5 An innovator continues to develop, to seek evidence of best practice, to take on board innovation, and to keep up-to-date all the time. For the teacher this means updating their subject knowledge as well as their skills and knowledge of new approaches to teaching, managing and planning. 2.0 Nation-Builder 2.1 A teacher is a marvelous entity and no tool has been able to replace it as yet. The teacher has been rightly called nation-builder because he holds the remedy for problems like illiteracy, population explosion, poverty, employment, erosion of values etc. Society in general and parents in particular continue to have a blind faith in the teacher. 3.0 Knowledge Disseminator 3.1 The teacher is a knowledge and skill disseminator and he/she disseminates concepts, principles,guidelines dan rules of the thumb, essential facts and essential skills. There are several tasks that the teacher undertakes as a knowledge and skills disseminator. He/She : exudes enthusiasm in the way he gets attention of his student all the time and this facilitates learning.

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Focuses attention to important areas of the subject and areas that are likely to be problematic to comprehend; Set objectives for learning task Checks prior learning Tries to make learning meaningful and memorable Facilitates encoding/recall of information so that the student is able to retrieve when this is needed Assesses learning

3.2 The teacher facilitates encoding/recall of information so that the student is able to retrieve it when this is needed. One way is through the use of mnemonics. The idea behind mnemonics is to inject sense into apparently senseless material. 3.3 Another way of helping the student learn is to get the students to go beyond what is it? to think about how and why to relate the new information to his existing knowledge and to use the new information as often as possible. 4.0 Interpersonal relationship agent 4.1 The teacher fosters relationships with school colleagues, parents, and agencies in the larger community to support students learning and well-being. 4.2 The teacher uses knowledge of effective verbal, nonverbal, and media communication techniques to foster active inquiry, collaboration and supportive interaction in the classroom. 4.3 The teacher possesses communication skills such as: builds and maintain rapport uses active listening skills possess an awareness of individuals needs and anxieties handles confrontation offers constructive criticism and suggestions accepts varying teaching styles, value systems and levels of autonomy.

4.4 The most effective interpersonal relationship agent should possess the following characteristics: empathy respect warmth genuineness concreteness self-disclosure immediacy

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congruency spontaneity non-judgmental

5.0 Management of Change 5.1 Change is inevitable in education and it is a process that involves learning. As an educator/teacher, one has to be able to understand the social, organizational and political identities and interests of those involved; focusing on what really matters instead of getting caught up in peripheral issues; assessing the agendas of all concerned 5.2 In managing change, the following suggestions may guide the process: Pay attention to the context. Whether acting as a change agent in an organizational or with individual students, understanding the context is critical to success. Both organizations and individuals are shaped by factors that it is important to address the process of change. Individual learners have norms and values that will influence the direction of change. Be prepared to be proactive. Underlying the managing aspect, one has to be able to initiate the change process even though fulfilling this role may raise questions about the ethics of facilitating change including use of power in giving students tools they can use in their lives. Attend to learning. Since learning and change are interconnected, the teacher can assist those who are undergoing the change process in understanding the different kinds of learning as well as the learning cycle of the change process. In managing change, the teacher should allow for periods of reflection to incorporate and/or practise new ways of thinking. Build in action. Any change will not be complete unless it involves action. Taking action related to a new mental concept or to organizational change will increase flow of information surrounding it and allow those involved to test it out, receive reaction to it, and involve others in learning about it. Action will provide the proof that the change has occurred. 6.0 Globalization and Education 6.1 The process whereby political, social, economic and cultural relations increasingly take on a global scale, and which has profound consequences for individuals local experiences and everyday lives. 6.2 It refers to a process of removing government- imposed restrictions on movements between countries in order to create an open, borderless world economy. Globalization is also being defined as a process which embodies a transformation in the spatial organization of social relations and transactions-

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assessed in terms of their extensity, intensity, velocity and impact-generating transcontinental or inter-regional flows and networks of activity. 6.3 Globalization has impacted upon the nature of the agencies that school children, and students. At a glance, it would seem that national governments still have considerable freedom to intervene in the education systems. 6.4 Globalization has found expression in some direct ways such as the delocalization of schooling. Since the 1980s, there has been a degree of parental choice within state schooling. It has been possible to choose which schools to apply to both primary and secondary levels. 6.5 To these developments must be added changes in educational technologyespecially the use of the internet and other computer forms and the growth of distance learning. These involved highly individualized forms of learning and may not lead to any additional interaction with neighbours or with agencies. They allow people from different parts of the world to engage in the same programme and student contact can be across great physical distance. 6.6 As the educational systems becomes more marketized, colleges, schools and non-formal education agencies seeks to build relationships based more on viewing learners as customers rather than participants. The main role of the teacher-turned-classroom manager is to legitimate through mandated subject matter and educational practices a market-based conception of the learner as simply a consumer of information.

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CHAPTER 8: DEVELOPMENT OF THE EDUCATION SYSTEM IN MALAYSIA

Overview:
In this chapter, we shall The characteristics of the early education system in Malaysia before British during British Colonial rule

The implications and effects of the various educational reports on the development of the national education Razak Report 1956 Rahman Talib Report 1960 Education Ordinance 1967 Cabinet Committee Report 1979 Education Act 1995 and 1996 smart school information and communication technology distance learning

The characteristics of the current education programme -

Key Terms
Pre- Independence Early Independence Razak Report Rahman Talib report Education Ordinance Cabinet Committee Report Education Act Smart school Distance learning/Open university Information and Communication Technology

Further Reading
Ministry of Education Malaysia.(2001). Education in Malaysia, Kuala Lumpur. Majdalany,G. & Guiney, S. 1999. Implementing distance learning in urban schools. No. 150. Rowntree,D. (1998). Exploring Open and Distance Learning. London: Kogan Press Ltd.

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Schlosser, C.A. & Anderson, M.L. 1997. Distance education: review of the literature. Washington : Association for educational Communications and Sherry,L. 1996. Issues in distance learning. International Journal of Educational Telecommunications, 1(4): 337 365. http://www.unesco.org/webworld/infoethics_2/eng/papers/paper_23.htm. http://www.gseis.ucla.edu/courses/ed253a/dk/GLOBPM.htm

Suggested Input
1.0 Pre-Independence 1.1 Prior to attaining independence from the British colonial rule in 1957, there was an absence of uniformity in the provision of formal education in Malaysia. There was separate schools with different media of instruction, curricula, methods and standards for children of the various ethnic groups, that is Malays, Chinese and Indians. 1.2 Two types of schools emerged : the English medium and the vernacular schools. English medium schools, established by the then British government, individuals and missionary societies, provided a western education for a mixed urban population. Education was not free.. 1.3 Chinese and Tamil vernacular schools were set up by their respective communities. Free education was provided in the Malay vernacular schools which were established by the government 1.4 Secondary education was only available in English government and mission schools as well as in independent Chinese schools. Malay medium and Tamil medium education were limited to the primary level. 1.5 Under British colonial rule, higher education in Malaya was dictated by the British policy of producing the necessary personnel for the Malayan Civil Service with senior posts reserved for and filled by the Europeans. The first institution of higher education was not established until 1905 when King Edward Vll College of Medicine was founded in Singapore. The second institution was the Raffles College which was established in 1928. These two colleges developed side by side until 1949 when they were amalgamated to constitute the former University of Malaya in Singapore. 1.6 The upsurge of nationalism and desire for self-government resulted in the setting up of two Committees, popularly known as the Barnes (1950) and Fenn-Wu (1951) to look into the problems of and recommend improvements to Malay and Chinese education. As an outcome of these two Committees, the Education

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Ordinance of 1952 was passed but it did not produce the desired changes in the system. As a result, a special committee was set up in 1956 to work out a policy based upon the decision to make Malay the national language whilst preserving the languages and cultures of the other domiciled races of the Federation of Malaya. The recommendations of the Committee contained in the Report of the Education Committee 1956, commonly referred to as the Razak Report, formed the basis of the Education Ordinance of 1957, which laid the foundation for the national education policy. 2.0 Post Independence 1957-1960 2.1 The post independence era is the period during which the foundation of the of the national education system was laid. The early years was a period of post war reconstruction and the nation had to contend with the communist insurgence until 1960s. 2.2 The ultimate objective of the education policy as stipulated in the Razak report was to bring together all races by progressively and gradually making the Malay language the main medium of instruction. Chinese and Tamil would continue to be the media of instruction as the primary level in the vernacular schools. 2.3 In 1960, a Review Committee looked into the implementation of the recommendations made by the Razak Report of 1957. The findings of this Committee, commonly referred to as the Rahman Talib Report, confirmed the soundness of educational policy as laid down by the Razak Report and its general acceptance by the public. The recommendations of these two reports became the integral components of the Education Act 1961. In January 1976, the Act was extended to the states of Sabah and Sarawak, which had been incorporated into the formation of Malaysia in 1963. 2.4 The two most important tasks facing the new nation since independence were education for unity and universal education. The process of consolidating the diverse school system into a cohesive national educational system, with the National Language as the main medium of instruction, was initiated during this period. 2.5 In 1957, all existing primary schools were converted to national and national type-schools. Malay medium primary schools were renamed national nationaltype primary schools. Whilst Malay was the medium of instruction in nationalschools, the medium of instruction in national type schools were English and the vernacular languages. The national language was made a compulsory subject in these national-type schools.

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2.6 English and Chinese secondary schools were converted to national-type secondary schools. Such schools became fully assisted schools. In 1968, the process of conversion of English medium national type schools into national schools began in stages with the teaching of five subjects in Bahasa Melayu in Standards 1-3. 2.7 1958 marked the beginning of Malay medium secondary education. Malay medium secondary classes were started as an annex in English secondary schools. These classes eventually developed into national secondary schools. 2.8 The Language Institute was established in 1958 to train Malay Language specialist teachers. The Dewan Bahasa and Pustaka was founded in 1956 to produce textbooks and reference books in the National Language. 2.9 The entrance examination into secondary school, the Malayan Secondary Schools Examination, was abolished in 1964 and universal education was extended from six to nine years in Peninsular Malaysia. This examination was abolished in Sarawak in 1974 and in Sabah in 1977. 2.10 Curricular reforms focused on reviewing the existing syllabuses and designing a common content curriculum with a Malaysian outlook. Common content examinations were implemented in all schools. 2.11 A comprehensive education system of the lower secondary education was introduced in 1965. Technical and vocational education was given an impetus with the establishment of the Technical and Vocational Education Division in 1964. 3.0 Educational Development 1970-1980 3.1 Social and economic issues shaped the development of education from the seventies to the 1990. Racial harmony and eradicating economic imbalances in the society were crucial to sustained development, stability and progress. This is the period of the New Economic Policy, which is a socio-economic policy to achieve national unity and development by focusing on eradicating poverty and restructuring the Malaysian society to eliminate the identification of race with economic function and geographical location. 3.2 The medium of instruction of instruction was converted in stages beginning in 1970 and by 1983 it became the medium of instruction at the tertiary level. Today Bahasa Melayu is the medium of instruction in all national schools and it is compulsory subject in Chinese and Tamil Schools. English is taught as a second language.

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3.3 In 1980, the Malaysian Certificate of Education examination was conducted in Bahasa Malaysia only. In 1970, English ceased to be the medium of instruction in primary teacher education programmes. 3.4 The administrative machinery of the education system was expanded and improved to enable the government to implement the two pronged strategies of the New Economic Policy using education as a vehicle. The Curriculum Development Centre was established in 1973 to evaluate, review and develop the school curriculum in line with national goals. 3.5 In 1979, Cabinet Committee Report recommended new approaches and strategies to further consolidate, strengthen and expand the national system of education. In 1980s several recommendations of this Review Committee were implemented to bring about greater democratization in educational opportunities and reduce the imbalances between the rural and urban areas. 3.6 A major reform was in the introduction of the New Primary School Curriculum in 1983 and by 1989 the Integrated Secondary School Curriculum was implemented. The national philosophy of education was formulated of education1988 which further reinforced the direction and goals of education in Malaysia. 4.0 Educational Development 1990-2000 4.1 The last decade of the twentieth century witnessed unprecedent and accelerated change at a pace that has never been experienced before. Advances in information communication technology(ICT) have hastened the pace of globalization and the trend is irreversible. 4.2 Vision 2020 initiated in the early 1990s may be perceived as Malaysia s first step into the Information Age and a globalized world. To enable Malaysia make the quantum leap towards an industrialized nation status and eventually into a knowledge economy, the country needs to build a world class education system. 4.3 1996 saw the change when the Education Act 1961 replaced by the Education Act 1996 to regulate the expansion of education. Of paramount importance was the enactment of the Private Higher Education Institutions Act 1996 which made provision for the establishment of privately run tertiary institutions. 4.4 The last decade of the twenthieth century has witnessed concerted quantitative and qualitative developments in primary, secondary and tertiary education. re is an increased access to tertiary education with the setting up of public and private universities, university colleges, matriculation colleges, community colleges, private colleges as well as foreign university branch campuses.

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4.5 To ensure greater access to education and basic education for all, children were assured eleven years of school after 1997 when most students were promoted to the upper secondary after sitting for the lower secondary assessment examination. The curriculum was continuously reviewed and updated to incorporate thinking skills with greater emphasis on science and technology. It was during this stage that saw the emergence of the smart school concept and the introduction of computer literacy in the schools and in teacher training. 4.6 The launching of a training programme for school heads and the setting up of a university for teachers, Universiti Pendidikan Sultan Idris in 1997. The diploma level pre-service teacher training programme was introduced. Another development is the introduction of the Sijil Pelajaran Malaysia (SPM) and Sijil Tinggi Pelajaran Malaysia(STPM) Open Certification examinations. 5.0 Education Ordinance 1952 5.1 Features of this policy: to promote a National School system by the gradual introduction of the English Language into Malay vernacular schools and Malay Language and English Language into Chinese and Tamil Vernacular schools. To maintain the existing English medium National type schools To develop vocational secondary schools

6.0 The Report of the Education Committee 1956 (Razak Report) 6.1 Major Recommendations: orientation to a Malayan outlook by the introduction of common content syllabuses and time tables for all schools. The national language (Malay Language) to be the main medium of instruction in all schools The national language and the English Language to be compulsory subjects for all primary and secondary schools Conversion of existing primary schools to National schools (Malay medium) and National-type schools (English, Chinese or Tamil medium) The establishment of one types of National Secondary school open to all races using common content syllabuses, with a flexible curriculum 7.0 Rahman Talib Report (1960) and Education Act 1961 7.1 Major recommendations: universal free primary education automatic promotion up to Form III enhancement of Technical and Vocational education setting up of the Federal Inspectorate of schools

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introduction of Bahasa Malaysia, the National language as the main medium of instruction An examination system which uses only two main languages that is, Bahasa Malaysia and English Language Expansion of teacher training programme Provision of Religious and Moral Education

8.0 Report of Cabinet Committee 1979 8.1 Major recommendations: emphasis is given to the basic education of 3Rs- reading, writing and arithmetic emphasis is given to spiritual education and required disciplinary elements emphasis is given to a curriculum tailored to Malaysia two mainstreams of secondary level of education, academic and vocational the opportunity to extend schooling from 9 years to 11 years well managed plan for educational management to enhance the overall quality of education 9.0 Education Act 1995 9.1 Main recommendations: the national education system is designed to produce world class quality education to achieve the countrys aspirations the National Philosophy of Education is the basis for the National Principles of Education the duration for primary education is 5 7 years pre-education education is part of the national education system improved technical and polytechnic education provisions are made for the monitoring of private education

10.0 Open and Distance Learning 10.1 An open learning system is one which the restrictions placed on students are under constant review and removed wherever possible. It incorporates the widest range of teaching strategies, in particular those using independent and individualized learning 10.2 Open learning: arrangements to enable people to learn at the time,place and pace which satisfies their circumstances and requirements. The emphasis is on opening up opportunities by overcoming barriers that result from geographical isolation, personal or work commitments or conventional courses

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structures which have often prevented people from gaining access to the training they need. 10.3 Distance learning can be defined as an instruction and learning practice utilizing technology and involving students and teachers who are separated by time and space. It can occur between schools, between schools and colleges and universities and even within school buildings and districts. 10.4 Distance learning first emerged as a concept in the nineteenth century, when it was characterized as a correspondence course. It reappeared as the open universities of the 1970s and then as the video tape, broadcast, satellite and cable productions of the 1980s. Today, distance education refers to the use of audio, video and computer video conferencing technologies as delivery modes. 10.5 Distance learning is learning while at a distance from ones teacher-usually with the help of pre-recorded, packaged learning materials. The learners are separated from their teachers in time and space but are still being guided by them. 10.6 Distance learning encourages students to be creative, to participate actively in their own learning, to experience others and to prepare for the kind of world that they will enter as adults. Further, computer learning activities that employ multiple interactive media encourage active listening, focused attention, and the ability to work independently. 11.0 Information Communication and Technology 11.1 ICT is defined as any computer-based resources, networked and stand alone, including both hardware and software, currently available as teaching and learning resources. 11.2 Examples include tailored multimedia teaching packages; information sources such as the internet ; data management tools such as word-processing , software or spreadsheets. 11.3 The ability to use ICT effectively and appropriately is now seen as essential to allow learners to acquire and exploit information within every sphere of human activity. The school curriculum already reflects the perceived value and importance of developing ICT literacy and information literacy in all students.. IT is integrated into the curriculum. 11.4 Changes in the perception of what constitutes a learning environment have been highlighted in a number of recent developments which seek to exploit the potential of ICT. Today libraries in higher education have developed and exploited a networked environment.

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11.5 Successful integration into the curriculum depends on teachers being convinced of the relevance of ICT as a means of providing access to a richer range of resources for themselves and students. This emphasis must be on using appropriate technologies to enhance and support effective learning. Teachers need to be able to exploit modern information sources for themselves as continuing learners even when they are teachers.

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CHAPTER 9: EDUCATIONAL OUTCOME

Overview:
In this chapter, we shall cover The inequality in educational opportunities and outcomes - concepts and issues Home and environmental factors affecting educational achievement Characteristics of schools which affect academic achievement

Key Terms
Restrictive culture Compensatory education Social status Socialization Urban and rural location School culture Teachers expectation Effective schools

Suggested Activities Further Reading

Banks, O. 1976. Sociology of Education. London: Batsford Ltd. Calfee,R. 1986. Curriculum and Instruction: Reading. In B.I. Williams,P.A. Richmond, & Mason (Ed). Designs for compensatory education: Conference proceedings and papers. Washington,D.C. : Research Evaluation Associates, Inc. Cheng, Y.C. 1993. Profiles of organizational culture and effective schools. In School effectiveness and school improvement 4, 2 : 85 110. Deal,T.E.1993. The culture of schools In Educational Leadership and school culture edited by Marshall Sashkin and Walberg,H.J. Berkeley: McCutchan Publishing. Doyle, W. 1986. Vision and reality: A reaction to issues in curriculum and instruction for compensatory education. In B. I. Williams, P.A. Richmond & Mason (Ed) Designs for compensatory education. Conference proceedings and papers. Washington, D.C.: Research Evaluation Associates, Inc. Fraser,E. 1973. Home Environment and the school. London: University of London Press. http://www2.moe.gov/~bpgEng.html http://www2.moe.gov-my/~bpghlbestari_htm.

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Suggested Input
1.0 Compensatory Education 1.1 Compensatory education programs has traditionally been informed by the belief that disadvantaged students can benefit most from a less challenging curriculum and limited achievement goals. 1.2 The purpose of compensatory education is to help the child make the progress that she or he would have made if an appropriate program had been available. The specific services provided must be tailored to the childs needs. Compensatory education can mean extra instruction or related services provided during the school year. 1.3 It provides for learning opportunities in both cognitive and affective areas, in skills of learning how-to-learn and learning how to be a student. It emphasizes mastery learning techniques that may improve scores, but fail to help students learn how to work independently and develop coherent mental representations for school work in general. 1.4 Peterson (1986) concluded that low achieving students can successfully be taught a variety of cognitive strategies such as memory, elaboration, selfquestioning, rehearsal, planning and goal setting, comprehension, problemsolving, hypothesis generating and study skills; and that compensatory education should give greater emphasis to their development. 2.0 Factors Affecting the Development of Educational Inequalities 2.1 Social Class Social class is a product of the distribution of valuable resources in society and not of a particular ethnic groups historical experience. It is measured by the indexes of socioeconomic status (SES) These indexes are based on weighted combinations of parental education, occupational prestige and income. Students from more advantaged homes and neighbourhoods are more likely to enter school with a base of knowledge and values that encourage school success; be surrounded by an atmosphere of parental support for and active involvement in schooling; have economic resources to purchase instructional materials and educational services that are available to students whose parents have less money. 2.2 Race and Ethnicity In countries like America, racial and ethical differences are always the most important basis of inequality. Why do race and ethnicity sometimes matter so much and sometimes so little in a groups ability to take

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advantage of school opportunities? Sociologist argued that ethnic groups migrating voluntarily to a new land have strong incentives to assimilate to the culture of the new country. In the long run, the new group will be integrated into the host country. In contrast, racial and ethnic groups conquered by a technological superior power are unlikely to be assimilated as easily, both because the majority group is unlikely to fully accept those it has conquered and because the colonized rarely accept their conquerors. An important reason that ethnicity is properly characterized as the varying divider is that some immigrant groups become assimilated and move up the socioeconomic ladder faster than others. The success of fast-rising minorities is often attributed to their superior drive or intelligence. However, some minorities typically come to their new country with a host of advantages, not enjoyed by other groups, quite apart from their drive and intelligence. 2.3 Gender -

Countries with higher per capita incomes were more likely to have greater gender equality in schooling. Economic progress is strongly associated with conditions that make womens lives less restricted. Countries with many ethnic groups generally had less gender equality, perhaps because it is politically difficult to extend educational opportunity when many ethnic groups are competing for preeminence.

In the industrialized world, a great deal more equality exists between men and women. In secondary school and higher education enrolments, women are either equal to men or actually over represented compared with men.

Although women now experience fewer disadvantages in educational access and educational attainments, they continue to experience many disadvantages in how they are treated in schools. Classroom interaction is one area of continuing unequal treatment.

There are good reasons to believe that gender will become a less significant factor in the future, even in the area of jobs and salaries. One is that as women gain ground, mens sensibilities change, however slowly and unevenly. Moreover, as the pool of career-oriented women increases, men have more difficulty hiring and promoting men on grounds other than demonstrated competence. Womens organizations and womens support

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networks contribute to equalization of opportunity by continuing to challenge discrimination in an active way. 3.0 Factors Affecting Educational Achievement 3.1 Home Factors The first five or six years are crucial foundation years, and even after starting at school the child continues to live with his parents and to be deeply influenced by their behaviour and attitudes. The family shares in the socialization process alongside the school.and the family environment is likely to encourage a favourable response to school. The school has become the focal socializing agency The family background, for example working class children to perform less well in school. There is the relation ship between social class background and educational achievement. The tendency of the working classes to under-achieve is consistent. Parental interest may affect one kind of school system than in another whilst achievement motivation may count for more in one kind of teaching situation than in another. Relationship between social-class background and educational achievement. The influence of different social class milieu of the school affecting the level of educational and occupational aspirations and academic achievement of children from different social backgrounds have been found. Home conditions pride, confidence, affection and interest of parents in their children, as shown in instances in which parents read to their children, play with them or attend school functions with them appear to affect the achievement of the children. On the part of plus achievers, there is a general tendency to respect their parents, to take them into their confidence, and to return the love their parents show. Minus achievers do not appear to be so much exchange of affection or mutual respect, or desire to measure up to expectations. The climate of affection within the home for a particular child and its various manifestations appear to be related definitely to school achievement. Motivational aspect of the home environment whereby parents who are well educated and provide the child with favourable environment are likely to motivate him to study well. They will take an interest on their childrens school work.

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Emotional aspects such as emotional stress, insecurity and anxiety are factors which will affect the childs achievement. Thus a child from a well to do home with good cultural background may have high innate ability and high intelligence test scores but because of an unsettling home environment may do relatively poorly in school.

3.2

Material Environment - The effect on school performance of extreme poverty. Malnutrition and poor living conditions are bound to have an influence on the health of the child, and so directly or indirectly on his ability to learn. Pre-natal damage may occur to the child as a result of inadequate prenatal care. Poverty can also influence indirectly, by limiting the familys ability to forego adolescent earnings. Poor housing and overcrowding can impede the childs homework and his opportunity for reading or constructive play. Poverty, poor housing, overcrowding and other slum conditions affect a large number of children in ways which are likely to depress their educational performances. There is a close relationship between material deprivation and the whole way of life of the family. Poverty can make a parent less willing to keep a child at school; can make it difficult for him to afford books and toys, or expeditions which help a child to learn; can enforce housing conditions which make the whole family strained and unhappy or deprive the parentchild play or talk together. Thus school achievement should be related not so to isolated factors in the environment but to family life as a whole.

4.0

Characteristics of school that affect educational achievement School factors in terms of the quality of teaching, grouping and differential prestige and status attached to the schools have exerted great influence on the aspirations, expectations and achievement of students. A variety of school conditions in terms of physical facilities, school size, quality of teachers,geographical isolation, medium of instruction, financial resources and social class milieu affect the achievement of students.

4.1 The Social milieu of School

4.2 School Culture It is defined as the historically transmitted patterns of meaning that include the norms, values, beliefs, ceremonies, rituals, traditions and myths understood, maybe in varying degrees, by members of the school community.

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It has been found that healthy and sound school cultures correlate strongly with increased student achievement and motivation and with teacher productivity and satisfaction.

Recent studies found support that students are more motivated to learn in schools with strong cultures. Implementation of a clear mission statement, shared vision and school wide goals promote increased student achievement.

School culture also correlates with teachers attitudes towards their work. It was found that strong school cultures had better motivated teachers. In an environment with strong organizational ideology, shared participation, charismatic leadership and intimacy. Teachers experienced higher job satisfaction and increased productivity.

4.3 Teachers expectation Teachers expectation of the students ability had a significant influence on their performance. The teachers who had high expectations for certain students, somehow communicated this message to them in the classroom. The expectations of the higher intellectual performance could have been communicated to the group by the teacher in the classroom by giving them more attention, encouraging them more, demanding more of them and treating them more pleasantly. The students whom the teachers expected to do well, performed better, although their ability was similar to that of the unselected group. The Drop-out Study (1973) found that if the students perceived that their teachers academic expectations of them are high, then a higher percentage of the students were enrolled in school compared with those who perceived the teachers expectations to be low. 5.0 Effective Schools 5.1 Effective schools are distinguished from inefficient ones by the frequency and extent to which teachers learn together, plan together, test ideas together, discuss practices together, reflect together, grapple together with the fundamental vision and focus of developing students to fullest capacity. 5.2 Effective schools are a learning community, a place where teachers and administrators study, work and learn together with the mission of improving student achievement. 5.3 All efficient school has a culture and it is the information one gets from a culture that sends a message to the student that they will be productive and successful. The effective teacher thinks, reflects and implements. The efficient teacher

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models what is expected from the students- the ability to think and solve problems on their own. Effective teachers use their cumulative knowledge to solve problems. 5.4 All effective classrooms start on time. Students know the classroom procedures. Teachers understand how to teach for mastery. Teachers have high expectations for student success. All effective classroom are managed by effective teachers. 6.0 Smart School 6.1 Apart from the role of education to fulfill national development goals and aspirations, the project also meant to address various educational needs : to prepare school leavers from the information Age to bring about a systemic change in education, from an exam-dominated culture to a thinking and creative knowledge culture to re-emphasize science and technology education with a focus on creativity and innovation to equip students with IT competence to inculcate Malaysia values among the students and produce a generation of caring, peace-loving and environmentally concerned citizens 6.2 The smart school uses technology to support and enhance teaching-learning. With the aid of multi-media technology, self-accessed, self-paced and selfdirected learning can be practiced. This will allow students to develop their strengths to a level of excellence and breed a generation of inventors and innovators. Curriculum for smart school emphases through 4 subject areas, that is science, Mathematics, Bahasa Malaysia and English Language. The emphases are knowledge acquisition, analytical creative thinking and the ability to make decisions and solve problems, IT competency proficiency in an international language, inculcation of values towards the development of the good person.

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