Lighting

Overview
In the U.S., about 19% of all electricity is used for lighting (ACEEE, 2000). Industry uses about 10% of lighting electricity, or about 2% of all electricity in the US.

Fraction lighting electricity use by sector (ACEEE, 2000) Modern lighting systems are much more efficient that previous systems. Thus, lighting presents an opportunity for energy savings. However, an effective lighting system must do more than deliver light efficiently. Effective lighting provides the right quantity of light, with good color rendition and minimal glare. Quality lighting has been shown to improve productivity and enhance worker satisfaction. In most cases, small improvements in worker productivity greatly outweigh lighting energy costs. Thus, when considering changes to reduce lighting energy costs, it is essential that the changes maintain or improve the quantity and quality of light. In this chapter, we describe: Case studies of productivity increases from lighting upgrades Lighting fundamentals o Light quantity o Light quality o Glare o Types of electrical lighting o Lighting efficiency o Lighting performance summary Methodology for improving plant lighting o Measuring current lighting levels o Suggest improvements with current equipment o Evaluate daylighting options Lighting 1

o Evaluate lighting replacement options Lighting design o Electrical Lighting o Calculating the illuminance from skylights o Calculating the illuminance from vertical windows o LightSim daylighting analysis aoftware Grainger lighting data base Ballast and lamp disposal Heating and cooling interactions Emerging Lighting Technologies

We then illustrate these concepts with actual recommendations for industrial facilities.

Productivity and Lighting

HID lighting in industrial facilities usually draws about 0.5 W/ft2 with lighting costs on the order of $0.20 per square foot per year. Improved lighting placement, technologies and designs can dramatically cut these costs, while improving productivity and morale. Several studies have documented productivity improvements due to lighting upgrades. These studies suggest that improving plant lighting may be the most single cost-effective improvement you can make. A few examples are listed here. General Lighting Upgrades In the post office in Reno, Nevada, a lighting retrofit with a six-year payback increased the number of letters sorted per hour by 6% and decreased the rate of sorting errors to 0.1% making the Reno Post Office the most efficient in the Western US. Energy savings were about $22,400 per year, but the increase productivity was worth about $400,000 per year (Romm and Browning, 1999, Greening the Building and the Bottom Line, Global Energy Conference, Vancouver, May). Boeing recently went through a lighting upgrade with a two-year payback. In addition to energy savings, the things that people tell us are almost mind boggling, said one manager. Machinists report being able to read calipers and tools more easily. The improved contrast improves workers ability to detect imperfections in the shop by 20%. This is important because most of the errors werent picked up until installation in the airplane, where it is much more expensive to fix (Romm and Browning, 1999, Greening the Building and the Bottom Line, Global Energy Conference, Vancouver, May). Hyde Tools lighting upgrade reduced electricity costs by $48,000 per year. However, the quality of work improved significantly because we could see things we couldnt see before. The manager estimates that the improved lighting results in about $250,000 per year in additional revenue (Romm and Browning, 1999, Greening the Building and the Bottom Line, Global Energy Conference, Vancouver, May). Pennsylvania Power and Light saved $2,000 per year from their lighting upgrade, but the time required to produce drawings decreased, saving them another $42,000 per year. In addition, sick leave decreased from 72 to 54 hours per year. It was apparent that low quality seeing conditions were causing morale problems among employees, (Romm and Browning, 1999, Greening the Building and the Bottom Line, Global Energy Conference, Vancouver, May). Lighting 2

West Bend Mutual Insurance Companys move to a new building with advanced HVAC and better lights reduced electricity costs from $2.16 /ft2 to 1.32 /ft2, and improved productivity by 16.8% (Romm and Browning, 1999, Greening the Building and the Bottom Line, Global Energy Conference, Vancouver, May). Day Lighting A furniture company recently built a new manufacturing plant with a large portion of its lighting provided by skylights. Production output has consistently been over 20% higher than in the previous electrically-lighted plant. Employees report that working conditions are excellent (http://www.mcdonough.com/miller.html). Lockheed Missiles and Space Company commissioned a new office building in California in which the cost of extensive day lighting added an extra 4% to the buildings cost. However, electricity costs will be reduced by about $500,000 per year for a four- year payback. In addition, absenteeism dropped by 15%, which paid for 100% of the first cost in the first year (Romm and Browning, 1999, Greening the Building and the Bottom Line, Global Energy Conference, Vancouver, May). Skylights were installed on one half of the roof of a Wal Mart in Lawrence, Kansas. Sales data indicated that the departments under the skylights sold more than the departments under the electric lighting, and more than similar departments in other stores. To test whether this was due to the skylights, the departments were switched from one side of the store to the other. As before, sales from departments under the sky lights increased (Romm and Browning, 1999, Greening the Building and the Bottom Line, Global Energy Conference, Vancouver, May). A 1999 study conducted for Pacific Gas and Electric evaluated elementary student test scores and found that, in classrooms with daylight, test scores improved by over 20+%. Retail sales in a chain of 100+ similar stores were also evaluated. Sales were found to be as much as 40% higher in stores with skylighting (Heschong Mahone Group, Daylighting in Schools, Pacific Gas and Electric, 1999; Heschong Mahone Group, Skylighting and Retail Sales, Pacific Gas and Electric, 1999; http://www.h-m-g.com/Daylighting/daylighting_and_productivity.htm)

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Lighting Fundamentals
Effective, energy-efficient lighting systems provide the right quantity of light, with good color rendition and minimal glare, while minimizing energy-use. Each of these concepts is described briefly in the sections that follow. Light Quantity The quantity of visible light radiated by a light source is measured in lumens. The theoretical upper limit for the conversion of energy to light is 683 lm/W. Natural daylight has luminous efficacy of about 110 lm/W. Electric lighting ranges from about 10 to 100 lm/W. Illuminance is the quantity of light divided by the area on which it is incident. Illuminance can be measured by inexpensive light meters. The common measure of illuminance is footcandles. One footcandle is one lumen per square foot. 1 fc = 1 lm/ft2 The Illuminating Engineering Society of North America (IESNA) publishes recommended lighting levels for various tasks and spaces. IESNA recommended lighting levels for some common spaces are shown in the table below (IESNA Handbook, 9th Edition). In general, recommended lighting levels increase as the size and contrast of the visual task decrease. Thus, the recommended lighting level will be near the lower level of the range shown in the table below when the size and/or contrast of the visual task is large, and will be near the upper level of the range when the size and/or contrast of the visual task is small. For example, we generally recommend 15 fc for warehouses with large bulk items and 25 fc for warehouses with hand-stocked items. Similarly, we recommend 30 fc for general manufacturing and up to 50 fc for manufacturing tasks requiring visual precision
Offices and classrooms Corridors Restrooms Dining rooms Merchandise Display Warehouse Manufacturing Inspection Recommended Lighting Level (fc) 30-50 5-10 5 10 50 5-30 30-50 50-100

Light Quality Our eyes evolved to see in natural sunlight; thus, we distinguish colors best in sunlight. Light from electric lamps is generated at lower temperatures than sunlight and reduces our ability to distinguish between colors. Color Rendering Index (CRI) describes the effect of a light source on the color appearance of an object. CRI varies between 0 and 100. Approximate CRIs of various types of lighting are shown in the table below.

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Light Type Sunlight Incandescent T8 Fluorescent Metal halide T12 Fluorescent (cool white) High-pressure sodium

CRI 100 99 75-85 65 60 22

Some tasks, such as inspection and painting, clearly require high-quality light. In addition, most people prefer to work and live in light that is as close to sunlight as possible; thus the CRI of a light source should always be a consideration when selecting lights. For example, many people reporting seeing better under fluorescent lights with a CRI of 85 than under high-pressure sodium lights with a CRI of 22, even though the illuminance level under the high-pressure sodium lights is higher. Lighting is characterized by color as well as its CRI. The metric for color is the temperature of a black body. Low temperatures of 2000 3000 K produce warm red light. High temperatures of 5000 6000 K produce cool blue light. A graphic showing some relationships between color and temperature is shown below.

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Source: http://www.goodmart.com/facts/light_bulbs/color_comparisons.aspx Glare Glare is uncomfortably high illuminance. Glare can be problematic with large windows with direct sunlight and with direct high-intensity artificial lighting. For this reason, windows are often equipped with some type of shading and luminaries are often designed to diffuse light. Types of Electrical Lighting Common types of electrical lighting fall into three categories: incandescent, fluorescent and highintensity discharge. Some characteristics of each category are described below. Incandescent Lights: Thomas Edison invented the incandescent light bulb and it remains essentially unchanged today. Incandescent lights produce light by simple radiation from a heated tungsten filament. The lighting efficiency is generally low since most of the energy is released as infrared radiation rather than visible light. In recent years, halogen has been added to the filament increasing the efficiency and light output by about 30% in so-called halogen lights. Incandescent lights are inexpensive, require almost no warm-up time, and the lighting output does not degrade significantly Lighting 6

over time. However, because of their inefficiency, they are generally being replaced by compact fluorescent lights that use about 30% as much energy and last about ten times longer. Fluorescent Lights: Fluorescent lights work by energizing Ar, Ar-Ne or Kr gasses inside a tube. The gasses produce UV radiation that is converted to visible light when it interacts with phosphor coatings on the inside of the tube. Fluorescent lights have a higher lighting efficiency than incandescent lights. They start quickly and lighting output degrades only moderately over time. Old-style T12 fluorescent lamps were 1.5 inches thick. Newer T8 lamps are 1-inch thick and more energy efficient. All fluorescent lights require ballasts. The ballast regulates voltage and uses some energy itself. Oldstyle T12 lamps used magnetic ballasts. T8 lamps use electronic ballasts. New electronic ballasts are more energy-efficient, eliminate the flicker associated with old-style magnetic ballasts, are quieter and use less heavy metals than old-style ballasts. The fixture that houses the lamps and ballast and directs the light onto the work plane is called a luminaire. The luminaire efficiency is the ratio of the output lumens to the total number of lumens produced by the lamps. The most common types of fluorescent luminaries are recessed troffer, wraparound and industrial lights. Surprisingly, recessed troffers with acrylic lenses have better luminaire efficiencies than recessed parabolic troffers. However, the recessed parabolic troffers produce less glare, and are therefore widely used in rooms with video displays. Wrap-around luminaries hang below the ceiling the direct light sideways and downward; because of this they have high luminaire efficiencies than recessed troffers.

Recessed parabolic and lensed troffers (ACEEE 2000). The open luminaries common in industrial applications have the highest luminaire efficiencies, if reflectors are attached to the sides of the luminaries to direct the light down towards the workplane. The lighting efficiency of industrial strip lights without reflectors is very poor. Reflectors may have appertures (small slits) that allow about 10% of the light to escape upward toward the ceiling. Although the apertures slightly reduce the amount of light on the workplane, they also allow heat to escape, thereby keeping the lamps cooler and increasing their lifetime.

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Open industrial fluorescent fixture showing nonaperatured and appertured reflectors. (Grainger, 20002001) Luminaire Type Luminaire Efficiency* Recessed troffer parabolic 69% Recessed troffer lensed 80% Wrap-around 85% Industrial 98% (2 4-foot lamps), 93% (2 8-foot lamps) * Average of three most efficient models for 4 4-foot lamps (ACEEE, 2000) High-Intensity Discharge Lights: Fluorescent luminaries are generally designed to be placed 15 feet or less above the workplane. High-intensity discharge (HID) lights are used for applications with higher ceilings and are the most common type of industrial lighting. The three most common types of HID lights are mercury vapor (MV), metal halide (MH) and high-pressure sodium (HPS). Because the light output of MV lights degrades significantly and continually over their lifetime, MV lights are generally being replaced with MH lights. MH lights produce a white light with a CRI of about 65, and have a lighting efficiency of about 70 lm/W. HPS lights have a lighting efficiency of about 95 lm/W, but produce a yellow light with poor color rendering (CRI = 20); thus, these lights are best suited for outdoor and warehouse applications. All HID lamps require a ballast. The ballast for a typical 400-W HID lamp uses 50 to 65 W. HID lamps take about 3 minutes to start-up when cold and about 25 minutes when warm. Thus, most HID lighting systems include a few fluorescent safety lights that start up immediately in the advent of a power interruption. Two-stage and dimmable HID ballasts with occupancy sensors have recently become available, however, in general, they remain too expensive for retrofit applications. Two-stage HID ballasts typically have a low-lighting stage that produces 35% of the light while using 50% of the rated energy. Luminaries for HID lights typically use spun-aluminum or acrylic reflectors. Spun aluminum reflectors, the most common type, direct all light toward the floor. Acrylic reflectors spread about 10% of the light horizontally and toward the ceiling. HID luminaries are classified as low-bay, for placement 25 feet or less above the workplane, and high-bay for higher placements. Low-bay luminaries have acrylic lenses that spread the light outward over a wider surface area.

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(Source Grainger, 2000-2001) Lighting Efficiency The efficiency of converting electricity to light can be measured as the ratio of light output (lm) and electrical power (W). All common types of electric lights except incandescent lights require a ballast to regulate the voltage to the lamp. Thus, the lighting efficiency should include the electricity consumed by both the lamp and ballast. The lighting output of most types of lights degrades over the lifetime of the light, thus the mean lighting output should be used when calculating energy efficiency. The approximate lighting efficiencies of common types of lighting systems (including ballasts) are shown in the table below.

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Light Type Lm/W* Candle 0.15 Incandescent 18 Mercury vapor 35 T12 Fluorescent 58 Compact fluorescent 70 Metal halide 70 High-pressure sodium 96 T8 Fluorescent 100 *Approximate lm/W calculated using mean lighting output (lm) and energy use (W) including ballast. Lighting Performance Summary Efficiency CRI Lifetime Lumen Restrike (Lm/W)* (hours) Maint. Time Incandescent 18 99 750 Good Instant Compact fluorescent 70 60 10,000 OK Immediate T12 Fluorescent 58 60 20,000 Good Immediate T8 Fluorescent 100 75 20,000 Good Immediate Mercury vapor 35 24,000 Poor 30 min Metal halide 70 65 20,000 Fair 30 min High-pressure sodium 96 22 20,000 Good 30 min *Approximate lm/W calculated using mean lighting output (lm) and energy use (W) including ballast. Power Factors for Common Lighting Systems: (Courtesy of Andrew Bierman, Lighting Systems Specialist, Lighting Research Center, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute) The power factor of fluorescent lamp-ballast systems depends on the type of ballast operating the lamp(s). Simple magnetic choke ballasts, common for inexpensive residential fixtures, have power factors in the range 0.4 to 0.6 with a lagging phase angle. Commercial magnetic ballasts for fluorescent lamps are often power factor corrected by means of an included capacitor and are labeled 'high power factor' which means the power factor is over 0.9. Most electronic, high frequency ballasts contain circuitry to give them a high power factor as well; often as high as 0.98. Note that without power factor correction in electronic ballasts, the low power factors are not due to current and voltage phase shifts, but rather to harmonic distortion of the current. Correcting the power factor in these ballasts is achieved by minimizing the THD (total harmonic distortion) of the line input current. Without correction, the THD of electronic ballasts (both for compact fluorescent and linear fluorescent) can be as high as 160% (measured with respect to the fundamental, 60 Hz component), which corresponds to a power factor (caused by the distorted current flow) of about 0.6. For more information visit the LRC website at http:\\www.lrc.rpi.edu . See the NLPIP Specifier Reports: Screwbase Compact Fluorescent Lamp Products and Specifier Reports: Electronic Ballasts (for linear lamps) (http://lrc102.lightingresearch.org/nlpip/specifierreports.cfm) HID ballasts behave similarly. Light Type

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Methodology for Improving Plant Lighting

Lighting upgrades should not be cookbook engineering. We try to inform the client about the importance of good lighting, evaluate the lighting in the facility and discuss a full range of options for upgrading lighting. Our general procedure follows the whole-system inside-out approach to identifying savings opportunities. We start on the inside at the point of use where we determine current lighting needs and investigate the lighting already in place. Next, we investigate the lighting distribution system, including such aspects as light position and fixture efficiency. Finally, we consider the actual energy conversion equipment, the lights. Measure current lighting levels Suggest improvements with current equipment Evaluate daylighting options Evaluate lighting replacement options

Measuring Current Lighting Levels Get a plant layout before the initial walk-through. Measure lighting levels in footcandles throughout the facility on the initial walk-through and record on plant-layout. Measure lighting levels on the work-plane, usually at belt or desk-top height. Note lighting levels under task-lighting and general ceiling lights. Note areas with uneven lighting. Note areas with day-lighting through windows or sky-lights. Note areas where color rendition is important. Note on/off times

Make a second trip through the plant to do a thorough lighting inventory. Complete the following table before you leave the plant. This table becomes the reference for all lighting recommendations and also helps identify how much of the total demand is attributable to lighting. Location Annual Hours Foot Candles Type Qty Unit Power Total Power

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Compare measured and recommended lighting levels as recommended by the Illuminating Engineering Society. Location Offices Assembly Inspection Material Handling Warehousing Task Regular office work Rough, easy seeing Rough, difficult seeing Medium Ordinary Difficult Loading / unloading Rough Medium Minimum Foot candles 50 30 50 100 50 100 20 15 25

Discuss the importance of good lighting. There is substantial data that shows that well-lighted work places have higher productivity, lower absenteeism and higher morale. Suggest Improvements with Current Equipment This is an important part of the lighting assessment and is sometimes overlooked. We try to make a conscious effort to make sure the client is getting the most out of what they have. Things to consider include: Reposition lights over underused areas, over shelves, along walls, in corners, blocked by scaffolding, etc. Lower lights over critical work areas Specify light colored ceilings Turn lights off when possible Make sure that night safety lighting is not excessive Consider skylights, especially when color rendition is important Consider task lighting Clean or remove unneeded, dirty, or yellowed diffusers Remove diffusers from high-bay fixtures

Evaluate Daylighting Options Sunlight is abundant, free and the best type of light for virtually all visual tasks. Our eyes evolved to see objects illuminated by sunlight. Thus, we have better visual accuracy and color rendition in sunlight than under electrical lights. Sunlight also has packs more visible light into each watt of energy (about 110 lm/W) than electrical lights. Thus, cooling loads are reduced in daylit buildings. Finally, study after study shows that employee moral and productivity increases in daylit buildings. Why then do we find so many industrial facilities with painted-over skylights and little window area? This may be because of problems with leaky skylights or the expectation that heating and cooling costs would increase. Fortunately, neither of these problems should inhibit use of natural light for most facilities. Over the years, skylight manufacturers have developed new materials and methods of Lighting 12

installing skylights. When skylights are selected and installed correctly, leaking is no longer a problem. Further, the decrease in electrical lighting costs, cooling energy costs and productivity improvements associated with day lighting vastly outweigh potential increased heating costs.

Evaluate Lighting Replacement Options

This should be the last step, not the first, in a lighting assessment. General guidelines for office and industrial lighting are presented below. Office Lighting Use light colored finishes on everything above table height. Choose the lowest ceiling height; use vinyl acoustical tile Design circuits so lights near windows/skylights can be turned off Use time clocks or motion sensors to ensure that lights are turned off Use dimmable ballast and photoelectric controls with daylighting Use lensed, 3-lamp, T8, recessed troffers except in computer intensive workspaces Use parabolic, 3-lamp, T8, recessed troffers in computer intensive workspaces Replace incandescent and halogen lights with compact fluorescent lights Replace T12 systems with T8 systems: consider 4 T12 to 3 T8 with reflector retrofit Replace acrylic lenses if more than 8 years old Industrial Lighting Design circuits so lights near windows/skylights can be turned off Use two-stage dimmable HID ballasts in new warehouse applications Add reflectors to industrial fluorescent lights and reduce number of fixtures Replace T12 systems with T8 systems Replace 3 MV with 2 MH

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Lighting Design
Electrical Lighting The IES lumen method calculates the illuminance on a workplane, Ew (fc), as: Ew = Cu x F / Aw where Cu is the coefficient of utilization, F is the total lumens produced by the lamps, and Aw is the area of the work plane. Cu is a calculated from a manufacturer-supplied table based on the type of luminaire, room geometries and surface reflectivities. Typical Cus range from about 0.2 to 0.6 (Kreider and Rabl 1994) Heating and Cooling of Buildings. This equation can also be written as Ew = Cu x (LPF x N) / Aw Where LPF is the lumens per fixture and N is the number of fixtures. To determine how many fixtures are needed simply solve this equation for N. N = (Ew x Aw) / (Cu x LPF) Values of the coefficient of utilization, CU, for typical 4-lamp fluorescent troffer fixtures, 400-W highbay metal halide fixtures and 6-lamp high bay fluorescent fixtures are shown in the tables below.

CU for recessed 2 x 4 luminaire with 4-T8 lamps from www.columbialighting.com

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CU values for high-bay 400-W MH fixture from www.cooperlighting.com

CU values for high-bay six-lamp ORION 416 HPM fluorescent fixture from www.orionlighting.com

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CU values for 8-ft 4-lamp or 4-ft 2-lamp fluorescent fixture from http://www.goodmart.com/products/236383.htm In each table CU depends on the room cavity ratio, RCR, where RCR = 5 x h x (w + l) / (w x l) CU also depends on the reflectivity of the ceiling, rc, and walls, rw. Electrical Lighting Design Example Determine the number of 400-W metal halide fixtures and 230-W high-bay fluorescent fixtures required to light a space with the following characteristics: Ew = 40 fc W = width = 50 ft L = length = 100 ft H = height = 25 ft Rc = reflectivity of ceiling = 50% Rw = reflectivity of walls = 50% Solution: RCR = 5 x h x (w + l) / (w x l) = 5 x 25 x (50 + 100) / (50 x 100) = 3.75 ~ 4.0 CU (400-W metal halide) = 0.57 CU (230-W high-bay fluorescent) = 0.69 LPF (400-W metal halide) = 23,500 lm LPF (230-W high-bay fluor, w/ 3 2-lamp, 1.2 BF, 78-W ballasts at 8,000 hrs) = 3 x 6,840 lm = 20,520 lm N = (Ew x Aw) / (Cu x LPF) N (400-W metal halide) = (40 x [50 x 100]) / (.57 x 23,500) = 14.9 ~ 15 lights N (230-W high-bay fluorescent) = (40 x [50 x 100]) / (.69 x 20,520) = 14.1 ~ 14 lights

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Illuminance from Skylights The IES recommends an illuminance of about 20 fcs for warehouse spaces and 50 fc for precision work. The general equation to calculate the illuminance on a work plane, Ew (fc), from the illuminance on a horizontal skylight Esl (fc) is: Ew = Esl x Cu x transmissivity of the skylight x transmissivity of the well x Asl / Aw Where Cu is the coefficient of utilization, Asl is the area of the skylight and Aw is the area of the work plane. Cu is a function of ceiling reflectivity, floor reflectivity and the room cavity ratio, RCR where RCR = 5 x h x (w + l) / (w x l) where h is the height of the skylight over the work plane, w is the width of the room and l is the length of the room. Values of Cu for skylights are tabulated in Table 13.5 of Kreider and Rabl, 1994, Heating and Cooling of Buildings. Values of the transmissivity of the skylight well, as a function of well geometry and reflectivity, can be found in Figure 13.7 of Kreider and Rabl, 1994, Heating and Cooling of Buildings. Design values of the illuminance on a skylight, Esl, can be found in Figures 13.4 13.6 of Kreider and Rabl, 1994, Heating and Cooling of Buildings. Alternately, Esl can be calculated from the total radiation on a horizontal surface Ih (Btu/hr-ft2) by assuming that the illuminance of sunlight is 110 lm/W. Esl (fc) = Ih Btu/hr-ft2 / 3.413 Btu/W-hr x 110 lm/W x 1 fc/(lm/ft2) According to a local roofing company contacted in 2002, the material and installation for a 4 ft by 4 ft skylight with a 10-foot shaft would cost about $2,000. Calculating the Illuminance from Vertical Windows The IES recommends an illuminance of about 20 fcs for warehouse spaces and 50 fc for precision work. The general equation to calculate the illuminance on a work plane, Ew (fc), from the illuminance on a vertical window Ev (fc) is: Ew = Ev x Cu x transmissivity of the window Where Cu is the coefficient of utilization. Cu is a function of the window length and height, room depth and the distance between the window and the work plane (expressed as a fraction of the room depth). Values of Cu for windows are tabulated in Table 13.8 or Kreider and Rabl, 1994, Heating and Cooling of Buildings. Design value of the illuminance on a vertical window, Ev, can be found in Figures 13.4 13.6 of Kreider and Rabl, 1994, Heating and Cooling of Buildings. Alternately, Ev can be calculated from the total radiation on a vertical surface Iv (Btu/hr-ft2) by assuming that the illuminance of sunlight is 110 lm/W. Ev (fc) = Iv Btu/hr-ft2 / 3.413 Btu/W-hr x 110 lm/W x 1 fc/(lm/ft2)

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If the window is shaded from direct solar radiation, then the Iv should be the diffuse component of solar radiation. LightSim Daylighting Analysis Software LightSim daylighting analysis software simulates hour-by-hour illuminance on a work plane using TMY2 meteorological data. It is specifically designed to assess the feasibility of daylighting in buildings. LightSim can quickly determine the fraction of time that various daylighting designs can meet or exceed a target illumination on a work plane. LightSim is available at no cost from the University of Dayton IAC. According to a local roofing company contacted in 2002, the material and installation for a 4 ft by 4 ft skylight with a 10-foot shaft would cost about $2,000.

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Photocontrols
Photocontrols for outside lights turn lights off during the day and on during night, with an average ontime of 12 hours per day. Most outdoor HID lights come with a -inch knockout or an 11/16-inch hole for easy screw-in mounting. Most photocontrols have built-in delays to prevent false cycling from headlights, etc. Photocontrols typically cost less than $15 each (Grainger Catalog 2001-2002, pg. 627) and can be installed in less than hour. Thus, it is virtually always cost-effective to install photocontrols on all outdoor lights that are left on during the day.

Occupancy Sensors
Occupancy sensors turn lights on when someone enters a room and turn lights off about 4 minutes after the occupants have left a room. Most occupancy sensors use infrared sensors to detect body heat in motion. Occupancy sensors are appropriate for lightly used areas such as lavatories or conference rooms. Occupancy sensors can also be combined with bi-level ballasts to dim metal halide lights in warehouses. Bi-level ballasts typically reduce the lighting level to 1/3 of full level at of full energy use when on occupants are detected (www.advancetransformer.com). According to lighting vendors, bi-level ballasts typically cost about twice the price of regular ballasts. For example, a regular 400-W metal halide ballast costs about $110 (Grainger Catalog 2001-2002) and a bi-level ballast costs about $220. Residential occupancy sensors cost about $15 each and commercial/industrial quality sensors cost between $80 and $200 each (Grainger Catalog 2001-2002, pg. 629).

Ballast and Lamp Disposal

Ballasts manufactured before 1979 contained wet-capacitors with the hazardous waste PCB. After 1979, ballasts used dry capacitors and contain no appreciable hazardous wastes. Because very few pre1979 ballasts remain, the Ohio EPA says that, in general, ballasts can be disposed of in normal waste streams. Fluorescent and HID lamps contain small amounts of mercury in the phosphor powder. Mercury is a potent neurotoxin and is harmful to both animals and humans. When unbroken lamps are disposed of in landfills, virtually no mercury leaches into the environment. However, if lamps are incinerated, the mercury is transported through the atmosphere to water, animals and humans. Spent lamps can also be recycled; however, some studies indicate that more mercury is released into the environment during recycling than by placing the lamps in landfills. Currently, lamp disposal is regulated on a state-by-state basis, or indirectly by the 1990 RCRA, which recognizes mercury as a hazardous waste. Under RCRA, small quantity generators that dispose less than 350 4-foot lamps per month can legally dispose of spent lamps into the municipal solid waste stream. We recommend that small quantity generators use this option if municipal waste is sent to land fills. If the municipal waste is incinerated, or for large lighting retrofits, we recommend that the lamps be sent to an EPA registered recycler (Lamp Recycling Coalition 802-223-9000) or hazardous waste disposal company. Be sure to research the credibility of the recycler or waste management company. If the waste is not disposed of properly, the original generator is legally liable. Recyclers and hazardous waste handlers generally charge about 40 cents per lamp for disposal or recycling. Lighting 20

In Ohio, the Ohio EPA says that all traditional spent lamps from businesses are considered hazardous waste irrespective of the number of lamps being disposed. Thus, all spent lamps should be sent to a registered recycler or hazardous waste contractor. Lamp recyclers in Ohio include: Envirocure 665 William Pitt Way Pittsburgh, PA 15238 1-800-HAZ-WASTE (Charges 35 cents per lamp and picks them up for free) American Recycling Co., LTD 7471 Tyler Blvd. Mentor, Ohio 44060 (216) 946-2221 FAX (216) 946-0045 Clean Harbors Customer Service 4879 Spring Grove Ave. Cincinnati, Ohio 45232 (513) 681-6246 USA Lights of Ohio 5366 Este Avenue Cincinnati, OH 45232 (800) 778-6645 The three major fluorescent lamp manufacturers (GE, Phillips and OSI) have recently introduced lowmercury lamps. These new lamps have about 5 milligrams of mercury compared to about 48 milligrams for 1985 vintage lamps. The low-mercury lamps cost about the same as regular lamps and are not considered hazardous waste. Thus, they will be exempt from future waste disposal regulations. We recommend specifying low-mercury lamps for all new lamp purchases.

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Heating and Cooling Interactions

Reducing the lighting energy added to a conditioned space will increase the cooling load and decrease the heating load on the HVAC system. In buildings where interior comfort conditions are not rigorously maintained, we usually ignore this effect. In commercial and institutional buildings, however, it can be more important. From simple energy balances, the additional air conditioning electricity savings would be about: [(Plights,pre - Plights,post) x hours/year ] / cooling The additional heating costs would be about: [(Plights,pre - Plights,post) x hours/year] / heating where Plights is the total power draw (kW) of the lights and is the efficiency of the space conditioning equipment. We usually assume that air conditioners simply run less after lighting retrofits, and hence don't take credit for demand savings. For example, if the lighting load were decreased from 50 kW to 40 kW, for 2,500 hours per year during the cooling season, and the average efficiency (coefficient of performance) of the air conditioner is 3.0, the additional cooling savings would be about: [(50 kW - 40 kW) x 2,500 hr/yr ] / 3.0 = 8,333 kWh/yr If the lighting load were decreased by the same amount for 2,500 hours during the heating season, and the average efficiency of the furnace was 75%, the additional heating energy needed would be about: [(50 kW - 40 kW) x 2,500 hr/yr ] / 0.80 x 3,413 Btu/kWh = 117 x 106 Btu/yr Note that when the heating and cooling periods are about the same length, as in this example, the increased air conditioning and decreased heating costs may be nearly equal. For this reason, they are sometimes ignored. In buildings with complex HVAC systems, heating and cooling interaction effects can be more accurately modeled by building energy simulation software such as ESim.

Emerging Lighting Techonologies

Light emitting diodes (LEDs) are semiconductor materials that emit light when electricity is passed through them. Currently, LEDs are used in thin-screen computer monitors, thin-screen televisions, watches, exit signs, flashlights, traffic lights and many other applications. Their appeal lies in their energy efficiency and longevity. Current white light LEDs have efficiencies somewhere between incandescent lights, at about 5%, and fluorescent lights, at about 25%. Current LEDs last about 5 times as long as incandescent lights. For example, California has replaced thousands of 150-W incandescent lightsbulbs that last about 1 year in traffic lights with red, yellow and green LEDs that consume about 15 W and last about 5 years. A principle challenge for white light LEDs is converting the colored light produced by an LED into white light, which a combination of many colors of light. One current design uses a LED that produces UV light to stimulate phosphors which emit red, green and blue light in the proper proportion to make white light. Another approach is to develop organic LEDs, which resemble a patch of softly glowing plastic. Organic LEDs could someday be mass-produced using ink jet technology on a Lighting 22

substrate. Theoretically, LEDs could be 100% efficient. (LED vs. the Lightbulb, Technology Review, May, 2003, pgs. 30-36.)

References
Kreider, J.F. and Rabl, A., Heating and Cooling of Buildings, 1994, McGraw-Hill Inc. Suozzo, M., Benya, J., Hydeman, M., Dupont, P., Nadel, S. and Elliot, N., Guide to Energy Efficient Commercial Equipment, 2000, American Council for an Energy Efficient Economy. Grainger Industrial Supply Catalog, 2000-2001, No. 391, W.W. Grainger, Inc. LED vs. the Lightbulb, Technology Review, May, 2003, pgs. 30-36. Orion Inc., 1204 Pilgrim Rd., Plymouth WI, 53073, www.orionlighting.com

Lighting

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