Cellular Network Planning

andOptimization
Part II:Fading
JyriHmlinen,
Communications andNetworking Department,
TKK,17.1.2007
2
Outline
Modelingapproaches
Pathlossmodels
Shadowfading
Fastfading
3
Modelingapproaches
4
Fadingseenbymovingterminal
Modelingapproach:
1. Distancebetween
TXandRX=>
pathloss
2. Shadowingby
largeobstacles=>
shadowfading
3. Multi-patheffects
=>fastfading
Time
Power
+20dB
Pathloss
- 20dB
Lognormal
fading
Fastfading
Pathloss
5
PathLoss
Pathlossisdistancedependent mean
attenuationofthesignal.
Oncetheallowedpathlossofacertainsystem
isknownwecansolvethemaximumdistance
betweentransmitterandreceiverandcompute
therelativecoveragearea.
Suitablepathlossmodeldependsonthe
environments(macro-cell,micro-cell,indoor)
Outdoortooutdoormodels
Outdoortoindoormodels
Indoormodels
6
ShadowFading
Shadowfadingisusedtomodelvariationsin
pathlossduetolargeobstacleslikebuildings,
terrainconditions,trees.
Shadowfadingisalsocalledaslog-normal
fadingsinceitismodeledusinglog-normal
distribution
Incelldimensioning/linkbudgetshadowfading
istakenintoaccountthroughacertainmargin
(=shadowfadingmargin)
7
Pathloss+shadowfading
DistancebetweenTXandRXinlogarithmicscale
S
i
g
n
a
l

s
t
r
e
n
g
t
h

i
n

d
B

s
Log-normaldistribution
Standarddeviatione.g.+/-8dB
Pathloss
8
FastFading
Fastfadingisalsocalledasmulti-pathfadingsinceitismainly
causedbymulti-pathreflectionsofatransmittedwavesbylocal
scatterers suchashumanbuildstructuresornaturalobstacles
FastfadingoccurssinceMSand/orscatterers nearbyMSaremoving
Signalstrengthinthereceivermaychangeeventensofdecibels
withinaveryshorttimeframe
Signalcoherencedistance=separationbetweenlocationswherefast
fadingcorrelationisnegligible.Signalcoherencedistanceishalfofthe
carrierwavelength
f=2GHz=>coherencedistance=c/(2*f)=7.5cm
Coherencetime=time inwhichMStravelscoherencedistance
CoherencetimedependsonMSspeed.
Incelldimensioning/linkbudgetfastfadingistakenintoaccount
throughacertainmargin(=fastfadingmargin)
9
FastFading
) (
0 1
0 1
) (
t t j
e t t a
+
+

) (
0 5
) (
0 1 0
0 5 0 1
) ( ... ) ( ) (
t t j t t j
e t t a e t t a t t S
+ +
+ + + + = +

) (
5
) (
1
5 1
) ( ... ) ( ) (
t j t j
e t a e t a t S

+ + =
Scatterers
Especiallythechangesin
componentsignalphases
createrapidvariationsin
sumsignal
) (
1
1
) (
t j
e t a

Sumsignalattimet
Sumsignalattimet+t0
10
Pathlossmodels
11
Content
Werecallfirsttwoimportantpathlossmodelsformacro- andmicro-cell
environments
IModel:ClassicalOkumura-Hata
Okumura-Hata isbasedononlyfewparametersbutitworkswellandiswidely used
topredictpathlossinmacro-cellenvironments
IIModel:COST231orWalfisch Ikegami
Thismodelissuitableforbothmacro- andmicro-cellenvironmentsanditismode
generalthanOkumura-Hata.Walfisch Ikegamimodelspropagationphenomena
moreaccuratelybutincostofincreased complexity.
Thenweconsiderpathlossinurbanenvironmentwhenbothtransmitter
andreceiverarebelowtherooftop(Bergmodel)
Outdoortooutdoormodel
PathlossofRS MSsignalinstreetcanyonIIModel:BRT BRT,NLOS
(Bergmodel)
Finally,wediscussshortlyonoutdoor-to-indoormodeling
Terminology
ART=AboveRoofTop
BRT=BelowRoofTop
LOS=Line-of-Sight
NLOS=NonLine-of-Sight
12
Generalpathlossmodel/outdoor
Outdoorpathlossmodelsareusuallygivenintheform
Here
RisthedistancebetweenTXandRX
Aandnareconstants.Valuesoftheseconstantare
dependingonthevariousparameterssuchascarrier
frequency,antennaheightsetc
Anotherformforformula(*)
) ( log 10
10
R n A L + = (indecibels)
n n A L
R A R L = = =
~
10 10
~
10 / 10 /
(*)
Notethatndefinestheexponentialattenuationofthesignal.Typically
itsvalueis3-4inurbanenvironment.Infreespacen=2.
13
Okumura-Hata
Okumura-Hata propagationlossmodel
BasedonmeasurementsinTokyo
Maybethemostwidelyusedpathlossmodelfor
attenuationofcellulartransmissionsinbuiltupareas.
Mostsuitableforlargemacro-cells
( ) ( )
10 10 10 10
log 13.82log 6.55log log
c b m b
L A B f h a h C h d = + +
AandBconstants
33.9 26.16 B
44 47,default44.9 C
46.3 69.55 A
1500
2000MHz
150-1000
MHz
c
f
b
h
m
h
Carrierfrequency(MHz)
Basestationantennaheight
Mobilestationantennaheight
Mobileantennagainfunction
Cconstantgivesdistancedependencyandshouldbefittedto
localmeasurements
( )
m
a h
30 200
b
m h m
1.5
m
h m
14
Okumura-Hata
m h h a
MHz f h a
m m
c m
5 . 1 , 0 ) (
1500 , 0 ) (
= =
> =
Mobilestationantennagainfunction
Small/Mediumsizecity
Largecity
Antennagainfunctioncanbeinmostcasesbeignored!
( ) ( ) ( )
10 10
1.1log 0.7 1.56log 0.8
m c m c
a h f h f =
( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
2
10
2
10
8.29 log 1.54 1.1 200
3.2 log 11.75 4.97 400
m
m
m
h f MHz
a h
h f MHz

MHz f MHz
c
1500 200 <
15
Okumura-Hata:Example
Pathlossaccordingto
Okumura-Hata modelin
largecitywhen
f=450MHz()
f=900MHz(*)
f=1800MHz(o)
f=1950MHz(x)
Flash-OFDMA(NMT-450),
GSM900,GSM1800,
WCDMA
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
70
80
90
100
110
120
130
140
150
160
170
Range[km]
P
a
t
h

L
o
s
s

[
d
B
]

(
O
k
u
m
u
r
a
-
H
a
t
a

M
o
d
e
l
)
Note:Therewouldbehugedifferencesincoverageif
allowedpathlosseswouldbethesamefordifferentsystems
BSheight=30m,MSheight=1.5m
16
Okumura-Hata:Example
Impactofbasestation
antennaheight:
Distance=3.0km
Distance=2.0km
Distance=1.0km
Distance=0.5km
Distancemeasured
betweenTXandRX
10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
120
125
130
135
140
145
150
155
160
165
BaseStationAntennaHeight[m]
P
a
t
h

L
o
s
s

[
d
B
]

(
O
k
u
m
u
r
a
-
H
a
t
a

M
o
d
e
l
)
1.5
m
h m =
1950
c
f Mhz =
d
b
h
17
COST231-Walfisch-Ikegamipathlossmodel
Inthefollowingwe
alsousenotations:
Note:weconsideronly
NLOScase
18
COST231-Walfisch-Ikegamipathlossmodel
Therooftop-to-streetdiffraction
losstermdeterminestheloss
whichoccursonthewave
couplingintothestreetwhere
thereceiverislocated

19
COST231-Walfisch-Ikegamipathlossmodel
b
20
COST231-Walfisch-Ikegamipathlossmodel
ComparisonwithsomemeasurementsmadebyNortelin1996forabase
antennadeployedinCentralLondonwellabovetheaveragerooftop
heightrevealedthattheCOST231W-Imodeldidnotcorrectlymodelthe
variationofpathlosswithmobileheight.Thisproblemwassolvedbythe
abovecorrectionfactor.
21
COST231-Walfisch-Ikegamipathlossmodel:
Impactofrooftopheight
Parameters:
BSantennaheight=30m
Carrierfrequency=1950MHz
Streetwidth=12m
Buildingspacing=60m
Streetorientation=90degrees
Rooftopheights:
6m(), 12m(*)
18m(o),24m(x)
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
90
100
110
120
130
140
150
160
170
180
190
Range[km]
P
a
t
h

L
o
s
s

[
d
B
]
Remarks:
W-IandOkumura-Hata giveapproximatelythesamepath
losscurvewhenrooftopheightis12m
Impactforrooftopheightiscrucialforcellcoverage
22
COST231-Walfisch-Ikegamipathlossmodel:
ImpactofMSheight
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
105
110
115
120
125
130
135
140
145
150
RelayHeight[m]
P
a
t
h

L
o
s
s

[
d
B
]
BS-RSdistance=1km Parameters:
Rooftopheight=12m
Carrierfrequency=1950MHz
Streetwidth=12m
Buildingspacing=60m
Streetorientation=90degrees
BSantennaheight=15m(o),20m(*),25m(x),30m(+)
Notice:
- BSantenna20m->30m=>10dBgain
- MSantenna1.5m->5m=>10dBgain
MSheight[m]
23
Bergmodel
BS
Scenario:
BothBSandMSantennasare
belowrooftop.
Modeltakestheminimumofan
over-the-rooftopsignal
componentandaround-the
streetscomponent.
Thisscenariowillbeincreasingly
importantinfuturesincedensity
ofnetworkelementsisincreasing
andmacro-cellsitecostsarehigh
24
Bergmodel
Checkhowtousethismodel
Note:Pathlossdependsheavilyoncorners(howmany,howsharp)
25
Bergmodel:Example
RS
Redmarks=rangealongthedashedroute
Violetmarks=rangewithoutpenetrationloss
*
+
x
o
o
*
x
o
o
+

30m
200m
0 100 200 300 400 500 600
50
60
70
80
90
100
110
120
130
Di s t anc e from relay [ m ]
P
a
t
h

L
o
s
s

[
d
B
]
0 100 200 300 400 500 600
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
Distancefromrelay[m]
P
a
t
h

L
o
s
s

[
d
B
]
Remarks:
- Thismodelisquitepessimistic(highpath
loss)
- Signalisdyingsoonroundthecorner
- BSlocationplanningisimportant
26
Outdoor-to-indoormodeling:Example
Remark:
- Pathlossdependsonnumberofwalls
27
Shadowfading
28
Generalremarks
Inurbanareasmacro-cellrangesare
fromfewhundredmetersuptofew
kilometers
Shadowingbybigbuildingsetccanbe
criticaloncelledge.Itmaycreate
largecoverageholes
Example:Allowedtotalsignalfadingin
systemis155dBandshadowfading
marginis8dB.Howmuchlarger(in%)
wouldthecoveragebewithout
shadowfadingmargin?Usefigureof
theslideforrangecomparison.
Answer:Cellrangewouldincrease
from1.35kmupto2.2kmwhichleads
to267%increaseincoverage
Remark:theimpactofshadowfading
canbereallylarge
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
100
110
120
130
140
150
160
170
Range[km]
P
a
t
h

L
o
s
s

[
d
B
]
W-Iwithparameters:
BSantennaheight=25m
Rooftopheight=15m
Carrierfrequency=1950MHz
Streetwidth=12m
Buildingspacing=60m
Streetorientation=90degrees
29
Shadowfadingmodel
Shadowfadingismodeledbylog-normal
distribution,i.e.signalstrengthindecibels isof
theform
wherefirsttermisthemeanpathlossandlatter
termfollowsthenormaldistribution,
withzeromeanandstandarddeviation.
X L L + =
) (
2
1
~
2
2
2
x f e X
x
=

(1)
(2)
30
Celledgecoverageprobability
Inlinkbudgetshadowfadingistakenintoaccount
throughacertainshadowfadingmargin(SFM).Incell
borderwerequirethatthesignalstrengthplusSFMis
largerthanmeansignallevelbyacertainprobability,
denotedby.Thenwecomputethecorresponding
SFM.Hence,werequirethat
cov
P
) ( log 10
10
R n A L + =
{ }
{ }
{ } SFM X P
L SFM X L P
L SFM L P P
> =
> + + =
> + =
cov
) ( log 10
10
R n A L + =
-SFM
31
Celledgecoverageprobability
Usingthedistribution(2)wefindthat
FromthisequationwecansolveSFMforgiven
and:
{ }
) / ( 1 ) / (
2
1
2
1
/
2
2
cov
2
2
2

SFM Q SFM Q dt e
dx e SFM X P P
SFM
t
SFM
x
= = =
= > =

) 1 (
cov
1
P Q SFM =

cov
P
32
Celledgecoverageprobability
Function1-Qisthecumulativedensityfunction
(CDF)ofnormaldistributionwithzeromeanand
standarddeviation1.Moreover,
) ( 1
2
1
2
1
2
1
2
1
2
1
) (
, 1 ) ( , 0 ) (
2 2
2 2 2
2 2
2 2 2
x Q dt e dt e
dt e dt e dt e x Q
Q Q
x
t t
x t t
x
t
= =
= =
= =

33
Celledgecoverageprobability
WecanestimatethevalueofSFMbyusingthe
inversioncurveofQ.
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4
10
-5
10
-4
10
-3
10
-2
10
-1
10
0
x
Q
(
x
)
( )
1
cov
1 Pr 1.6449 Q

Example:Let=0.95
andlet=6dB.Then we
find from thecurve that
andhence,SFM=11.6dB
cov
P
Outdoors:=5-8dB.Indoors:=10-12dB.
34
Singlecell coverage probability
Nextwecomputethecellcoverageprobabilityin
caseofasinglecell.
Analyticalcomputationisprettytechnicalbut
resultshowstherelationbetweenpathloss
exponentn,standarddeviation ofshadow
fadingandtherequiredcellcoverageprobability
35
Singlecell coverage probability
Letuscomputethesinglecellcoverage
probability.Weuseassumptions:
Meanpathlossfollowsthegeneralformula,i.e.
CellradiusisR
Usersareuniformlydistributedinthecell,i.e.
2
( , ) , 0 , 0 2
r
p r r R
R

=
) ( log 10 ) (
10
r n A r L + =
36
Singlecell coverage probability
Thecellcoverageprobabilityisobtainedbyaveraging
thelocalcoverageprobabilityoverallpossiblemobile
positions.Hence,wemustcomputetheintegral
Firstweneedtofindformulaforcoverageprobability
withinacertaindistancer.

=

2
0 0
cov
) , ( ) (
R
u
drd r p r P F
37
Singlecell coverage probability
Thecoverageprobabilityatdistancerisgiven
by
wherelowerboundisdefinedbythemaximum
allowedpathloss.Weusenowtheequations:
X r L r L + = ) ( ) (
{ } r SFM R L X r L P r P | ) ( ) ( ) (
cov
> + =
|

\
|
=
+ + =
r
R
n
r n A R n A r L R L
10
10 10
log 10
)) ( log 10 ( ) ( log 10 ) ( ) (
38
Singlecell coverage probability
Weobtainaform
andthus,thereholds
Nexttaskistocomputethisintegral
( ) { }
( ) ( ) ( ) / log 10
| log 10 ) (
10
10 cov
R
r
R
r
n SFM Q
r n SFM X P r P
+ =
> =
( ) ( ) ( )

+ =
R
R
r
u
rdr n SFM Q
R
F
0
10
2
/ log 10
2

39
Singlecell coverage probability
Byusingthesubstitution
weobtain
and
10
1
, 10 log
SFM
a b n e

= =
ln
r
x a b
R
| |
= +
|
\
exp
1
exp
x a
r R
b
x a
dr R dx
b b

| |
=
|
\

| |
=
|
\
0 r x
r R a
=
=
( )
( )
2
2
exp
a
u
x a
F Q x dx
b b

| |
=
|
\

40
Singlecell coverage probability
Weproceedusingintegrationbyparts
now
andweget
( )
2
1 1
' exp
2
2
u Q x
u x

=
| |
=
|
\
( )
( )
2
' exp
2
exp
2
x a
v
b
x a
b
v
b
| |
=
|
\
| |
=
|
\
' ' uv dx uv u vdx =

( ) ( )
( )
2
2
2 2
2 1
( ) exp exp
2 2 2
2
2
1
( ) exp
2
2
x a
a
u
x
a
x a x a
b b x
F Q x dx
b b b
x a
x
Q a dx
b

(
| | | |
(
= + +
| |
(
\ \

| |
= + +
|
\

41
Singlecell coverage probability
Wecanstillgoforwardbycompletingthe
squares:
Thencellcoverageprobabilityadmittheform
( )
( )
2 2
2
2 2
2 2
2
2
2
1 4 2 1 2 2 2 2
2
2 2 2
1 2 1 2 2
2 2
2 1
1 2
2
x a
x a a
x x x x
b b b b b b b
a
x
b b b
ab
x
b b
| |

| | | | | |
+ = = +
|
| | |
|
\ \ \
\
| | | |
= +
| |
\ \

| |
= +
|
\
( )
2
2
2 1
1 1 2
( ) exp exp
2
2
a
u
ab
F Q a x dx
b b

| |
| |
| |
= +
|
|
|
|
\
\
\

42
Singlecell coverage probability
WestillneedtosubstituteThen
andfinallyweareabletowritethe
( ) ( )
2
2
2 2
2 1 2 1
1 1 2
( ) exp exp ( ) exp 1
2
2
a
b
u
ab ab
F Q a t dx Q a Q a
b b b

| | | |
| |
| | | |
= + = +
| |
| | |
\ \
\
\ \

2
t x
b
=
Coverageprobabilityontheedgeofthecell
( )
2
2 1
2
( ) exp 1
u
ab
F Q a Q a
b b
| |
| |
| |
= +
|
| |
\
\
\
10
1
, 10 log
SFM
a b n e

= =
43
Singlecell coverage probability
Pathlossexponentn=3
Shadowfadingmarginis
6dB(x)
9dB(o)
12dB(*)
Remark:TheSFM
differencebetween95%and
80%coveragerequirementsis
large
-5 0 5 10 15
0.5
0.55
0.6
0.65
0.7
0.75
0.8
0.85
0.9
0.95
1
ShadowFadingMargin[dB]
C
e
l
l

c
o
v
e
r
a
g
e

p
r
o
b
a
b
i
l
i
t
y
44
Singlecell coverage probability
-5 0 5 10 15
0.55
0.6
0.65
0.7
0.75
0.8
0.85
0.9
0.95
1
ShadowFadingMargin[dB]
C
e
l
l

c
o
v
e
r
a
g
e

p
r
o
b
a
b
i
l
i
t
y
Pathlossexponentn=4
Shadowfadingmarginis
6dB(x)
9dB(o)
12dB(*)
Remark:TheSFM
differencebetween95%and
80%coveragerequirementsis
evenlargerthanincasen=3.
45
FastFading
46
Recall:FastFading
) (
0 1
0 1
) (
t t j
e t t a
+
+

) (
0 5
) (
0 1 0
0 5 0 1
) ( ... ) ( ) (
t t j t t j
e t t a e t t a t t S
+ +
+ + + + = +

) (
5
) (
1
5 1
) ( ... ) ( ) (
t j t j
e t a e t a t S

+ + =
Scatterers
Especiallythechangesin
componentsignalphases
createrapidvariationsin
sumsignal
) (
1
1
) (
t j
e t a

Sumsignalattimet
Sumsignalattimet+t0
47
Fastfading
Inlinkbudgetafastfadingmargin
isneededbecause
Iffastpowercontrolisapplied,then
someheadroomisneeded
especiallyinuplinksinceMSpower
reservationsarelimited.Ifpower
controlfails,thewholeuplinkmay
beakdown
Althoughlinkadaptation
(=adaptationofchannelcodingand
modulation)wouldbeusedinstead
offastpowercontrol,therecanbe
needforfastfadingmargin;fast
fadingcanbecrucialforslowly
movingusers
Fadingtimescaledepends
ontheuserspeed.
48
Idealfastpowercontrol
Fastpowercontrolaimstoconvertthechannel
sothatmeanpowerofthesignalinthereceiver
isconstant
Transmittedpower
fromMS
Responseofthe
physicalchannel
Channelseenby
BSreceiver(AWGN
channel)
Idealcase
Time
49
Limitedpowercontroldynamics
AtthecelledgeMSpowercontrolstartstohititsmaximum
value.
=>Numberoferroneousframesisincreasing
=>DatarateisdecreasedwhenQoS degrades
=>intheworstcaseconnectionbreaksdown
MStravelstowardscelledge/coveragehole=>
meantransmissionpowerneedstobeincreased
MaximumTX
powervalue
Longerandlongertimeswithbadconnection temporal
lengthofthefadesdependsontheuserspeed