Telecom Transmission Concepts :

PDH ( Plesiochronous Digital Hierarchy)

Plesio means = similar

Chronous means= Timing

Plesiochronous - "almost synchronous, because bits are stuffed into the frames as padding and the
calls (signal) location varies slightly - jitters - from frame to frame".

Plesiochronous Transmission :

Conversion of voice into digital signal:

1. Voice Frequency = 4 KHz
2. Sampling 4 KHz * 2 = 8 KHz
3. Quantizing = Amplitude is given a certain value.
4. Encoding 8 KHz * 8 = 64 KHz
5. Line Coding

PCM Signal Data Rate :

8000 samples per

sec X 8 bits per sample= 64kbit/s
PDH Bit rates :
PDH Bit rates :

Disadvantages of PDH:

Although PDH was a breakthrough in the digital transmission systems, it

had a lot of weaknesses :
• No world standard on digital format (three incompatible regionalb standards - European, North
American and Japanese).
• No world standard for optical interfaces. Networking was impossible at the optical level.
• Rigid asynchronous multiplexing structure.
• Limited management capability.

Because of PDH disadvantages, It was obvious that a new multiplexingmethod is needed.

The new method is called SDH (Synchronous Digital Hierarchy).

PDH Vs. SDH :

Plesiochronous Hierarchy based on 2Mbps primary rates permits

multiplexing up to 140Mbps respectively.
 Changing from one hierarchical level to another requires additional equipment.
 Transmitting a multiplexed signal (34/140 Mb, etc) requires specialized equipment.

 Redirection (cross-connection) of channels must be done by hand on DDFs.

 Administrative connections require separate equipment to support Supervision, EOW and protection
switching.
 Compatibility of transmission and administrative signals between different vendor may give trouble.

SDH Advantages:

Synchronous Digital Hierarchy based on standard PDH rates but

packaged in to a synchronous signal.
 Changing from one hierarchical level to another does not require add’l equipment.

 Transmitting a multiplexed signal can be done with standardized equipment.

 Redirection (cross-connection) of channels is done internally using S/W commands.

 Administrative maintenance connections are done internally
 Compatibility of transmission and administrative signals between
different vendor is possible.

Why SDH (Synchronous Digital Hierarchy) ?

 Need for extensive network management capability within the hierarchy.

 Standard interfaces between equipment.
 Facilities to add or drop tributaries directly from a high speed signal.
 Standardization of equipment management process.

STM-1 Frame Format :

 A frame with a bit rate of 155.52Mbps is defined in ITU-T recommendation G.707.This frame is
called Synchronous Transport Module(STM),since it is the first level in hierarchy it is called STM-1
 It is made up from a byte matrix of 9 rows and 270 columns
 Transmission is row by row, starting with the byte in the upper left corner and ending with the byte in
the lower right corner
 The frame repetition rate is 125s.Each byte in payload represents a 64kbps
channel
SDH Bit Rates and Multiplexing :

Elements of SDH Network :

 Regenerator (Reg.)
 Terminal Multiplexer (TM)
 Add/Drop Multiplexer (ADM)
 Digital Cross Connect (DXC)

Regenerator (Reg.) :

Regenerator, Amplifies the optical signal after converting back to electrical and generates a new
optical signal of the same format Reshaping & timing of data stream
Terminal Multiplexer (TM) :

It combines the Plesionchronous and synchronous input signals into higher bit rate STM-N Signal.

Add/Drop Multiplexer (ADM) :

The Add And Drop Multiplexer (ADM) passes the (high rate) STM-n through from his one side to the
other and has the ability to drop or add any (low rate) tributary. The ADM used in all topologies.

Digital Cross Connect (DXC) :

A digital cross connect is an equipment which has the capability of interconnecting tributaries.

A digital cross connect is an equipment which has the capability of interconnecting tributaries

An Agg to Agg connection, a trib to aggregate connection and a tributary to tributary connection is
also possible in case of a Digital Cross Connect.
SDH Management :

 Alarm/Event Management
 Configuration Management
 Performance Management
 Access and Security Management

SDH Alarm Structure :

Error performance monitoring

 Pointer adjustment information
 Remote failure indications (RFI)
 Remote Defect Indications ( RDI )
 Signal Loss
 New Data flag indication
 Synchronization source information

Defect and Failure :

 A defect is a detection of an alarm such as loss of signals , loss of frames. AIS loss of excessive errors
 A failure is a defect that persists beyond a maximum time allocated. It is used to access to integrate
Automatic Protection Switching ( APS ).

Loss Of Signals (LOS) :

 This alarm is raised when the STM-N level drops below the threshold at which a BER of 1 in 1000 is
detected
 It could be due to cut cable, excessive attenuation of the signal or an equipment fault
 The LOS state will clear when 2 consecutive framing patterns are received and no LOS condition is
detected

Out of Frame (OOF) :

 This situation occurs when 4, or in some implementations, 5 consecutive SDH frames are received
with invalid framing patterns(A1 and A2 bytes)
 The maximum time to detect OOF is therefore 625Ms
 The OOF clears when consecutive SDH frames are received with valid framing patterns
Loss Of Frame (LOF) :

 The LOF occurs when the OOF state exists for a specified time in msecs
 If OOFs are intermittent,the timer is not reset to zero an “in frame” state persists continuously for
until specified time in msecs
 As the framing bytes are there in Regenerator section overhead(RSOH) this alarm is sometimes
known as RS-LOF

Loss Of Pointer (LOP) :

 The LOP state occurs when ‘n’ consecutive invalid pointers are received or ‘n’ New Data
Flags(NDF) are received(other than in a concatenation indicator), where n=8,9 or 10

 The LOP state is cleared when 3 equal valid pointers or 3 consecutive AIS indications are
received.This alarm is very rare in steady state because the pointer is either valid or is all 1s

 An AIS indication is all 1’s pattern in the pointer bytes.Concatenation is indicated when the pointer
bytes are set to “1001XX1111111111” I.e NDF enabled(H1 and H2 bytes for AU LOP; v1 and v2 bytes
for TU LOP)

STM-1 FRAME :
How Is The Frame Composed ?
PDH Payload
Container + Path Overhead (POH)
Virtual Container + TU Pointer
more than 1 Tributary Unit
biggest Tributary Unit Group
Tributary Unit Group + AU Pointer
more than 1 Administrative Unit
Administrative Unit Group +
Section Overhead (SOH)
= Container (C)
= Virtual Container (VC)
= Tributary Unit (TU)
= Tributary Unit Group (TUG)
= Administrative Unit (AU)
= Administrative Unit (AU)
= Administrative Unit Group
= SDH Frame
WDM – Wavelength Division Multiplexing :

The ability to use different wavelengths in a single fiber, to split and to combine them.

General Characteristics :

 Multiple service interfaces Accessible to a full range of services: 10G/2.5G SDH, GE, IP, ATM
services, 8×GE→10G, 4×2.5G →10G to enhance bandwidth utilization.
 Smooth upgrading capability
 Multiple transmission distance solutions
 Built-in spectrum analysis analyzer
 Perfect protection
 Unified network management.
Public Switched Telephone Network (PSTN):

The Public Switched Telephone Network (PSTN), also known as Plain Old Telephone
Service (POTS), is the wired phone system over which landline telephone calls are
made.
●It consists of telephone lines, fiber optic cables, and microwave transmission links,
cellular networks, communications satellites, and undersea telephone cables, all
interconnected by switching centers.
●The combination of the interconnected networks and the single numbering plan make
it possible for any phone in the world to dial any other phone.
Global System for Mobile Communication (GSM) :
Block Diagram of GSM Network :

Important points :

A Location Area (LA) is defined as a group of cells.

› The main differences between the American GSM 1900 standard and GSM 900 is that it supports
ANSI signaling.
› The purpose of a TRC is to multiplex network traffic channels from multiple BSCs onto one 64
Kbits/s PCM channel which reduces network transmission costs.
› The first digital cellular standard (GSM) is launched in 1991.
› The amount of information transmitted over a radio channel over a period of time is known as the
transmission rate. Transmission rate is expressed in bits per second or bit/s. In GSM the net bit rate
over the air interface is 270kbit/s.
› The modulation technique used in GSM is Gaussian Minimum Shift Keying (GMSK).
GMSK enables the transmission of 270kbit/s within a 200kHz channel. This gives a
bitrate of 1.3 bit/s per Hz.
› In GSM, a TDMA frame consists of 8 time slots. Information sent during one time slot is called a
burst.

GSM NETWORK IDENTITIES :

For a telephone number in the PSTN/ISDN network, ITU-T's numbering plan E.164 is used.
Mobile Station ISDN number (MSISDN)
› it is the only network identity that subscribers are aware of. All other network identities discussed in
this chapter are for internal network use and subscribers do not need to be aware of them. An NDC is
allocated to each PLMN.
International Mobile Subscriber Identity (IMSI) :

› The IMSI is stored in the SIM, the HLR and in the serving VLR.

Temporary Mobile Subscriber Identity (TMSI) :

It is used to protect the subscriber's identity on the air interface. The TMSI has local significance only
(that is, within the MSC/VLR area) and is changed at time intervals or when certain events occur such
as location updating.

International Mobile Equipment Identity (IMEI) :

The IMEI is used for security procedures such as identifying stolen equipment and preventing
unauthorized access to the network.

TAC=Type approval code,determined by central GSM body

FAC=Final assembly code,identifies the manufacturer
SNR= Serial numbering
spare=A spare digit for future use.
Mobile Station Roaming Number (MSRN) :

The Mobile Station Roaming Number (MSRN) is a temporary network identity which is assigned
during the establishment. In this case, SN is the address to servicing MSC/VLR. SN= Servicing Node.

Location Area Identity (LAI) :

The two main purposes of the LAI are:

1. Paging, which is used to inform the MSC of the LA in which the MS is currently situated
2. Location updating of mobile subscribers LAC Location Area Code, the maximum length of LAC is
16 bits, enabling 65,536 different location areas to be defined in one PLMN
GSM Radio Channels :

 Physical Channels
1. Associated with frequency bands, time slots, codes
2. Physical channels transfer bits from one network element to another
 Logical Channels
- Distinguished by the nature of carried information and the way to assemble bits into data units
- Three types
1. one-to-one: traffic channels between a BTS and a MS
2. one-to-many: synchronization signals from BTS to MSs in a cell
3. many-to-one: from MSs to the same BTS

 Control Channels
1. Broadcast Channels (BCH)
2. Common Control Channels (CCCH)
3. Dedicated Control Channels (DCCH)
 Traffic Channels (TCH)
1. Full Rate (TCH/F)
2. Half Rate (TCH/H)

Mobile registration:

› Before a mobile can do anything, it needs a dedicated control channel which is obtained via the
Random Access Channel (RACH). When this succeeds the BSC tells the BTS to allocate such a
channel to the mobile.

› The mobile then performs a Location Update Request which causes the VLR and HLR to be updated.
However, before any such update is made, the mobile’s HLR and AuC are contacted and the mobile is
authenticated by a challenge/response sequence which we shall look at later.

› The mobile is then assigned an alias, the Temporary Mobile Subscriber Identity (TMSI) which the
mobile acknowledges before the HLR/VLR are updated and the dedicated control channel released.
Paging a Mobile Station :

› Mobile stations, when powered on and idle, periodically scan a list of paging/control channels and
lock onto the strongest signal.
› As a mobile station moves from one base station cell area to another, it will determine that a new base
station has a stronger signal than the current base station and retune its receiver to the new base station.
› Base stations are unaware of the mobile station cell selection process.
› In order to deliver a call to a mobile station, a page message must be broadcast on the paging channel
from the base station for which the mobile is currently monitoring.
› Multiple base stations must be used to page a mobile station for situations where base stations are
unaware of mobile station movement.
› If the mobile station hears its identification code broadcast on the paging
channel, it will respond with a page response message.
GSM Architecture :

GSM Network Elements :

 Handset
 BTS: Base Transceiver Station
 MSC: Mobile Switching Center
 BSC: Base Station Controller
 HLR/VLR: Home Location Register/Visiting Location Register
• SIM Card: Subscriber Identity Module Card
• Service Centers: USSD, SMS, …

Mobile Handset (MH) :

• Used by the subscriber to access the GSM network via the air interface
• Contains the hardware and software specific to the radio interface
• Need a Subscriber Identity Module (SIM) which contains the subscriber-specific data to access GSM
network, except emergency call
Base Transceiver Station (BTS) / Base Station :

• Responsible for communication to and from MHs via air interface

– MH communicates with the mobile system using a radio channel to a BTS
• BTS comprises radio transmission and reception devices
– Including the antennae and signaling processing specific to the radio interface
• BTS separates the speech and control signaling associated with a MH and sends
them to the BSC on separate channels

Base Station Controller (BSC):

• Monitor and Control several base stations

– Frequency administration, control of BTSs, exchange functions
• Responsible for all the radio interface management
– Channel allocation and release, handover management
• BSC is the interface between MSC and BTS
– BSC is connected on one side to several BTSs and on the other side to the MSC

Mobile services Switching Center (MSC)

• Responsible for all switching functions related to call processing

– Coordinate the setting up of calls to and from GSM users
• MSC is the interface between GSM network & PSTN (Public Switched Telephone Network)

Home Location Register (HLR):

• A database in charge of the management of mobile subscribers

• Contains information of network subscribers
– Information on teleservices and bearer services ubscription, service restrictions, and supplementary
services
– The data stored in HLR is of a semipermanent nature and does not usually change from call to call

Visitor Location Register (VLR)

• Contains the relevant data of all Mhs currently located in a serving MSC
– The permanent data is the same as data in he HLR
– The temporary data includes
• Temporary Subscriber Identity (TMSI)
• Location Area Identity (LAI) of an MH
– VLR allocates mobile subscriber roaming numbers (MSRNs) for the incoming call setup
Subscriber Identity Module (SIM) :

Subscriber Identity Module

– Contains
• phone number (MSISDN)
• international mobile subscriber identity (IMSI)
• status of SIM
• service code
• authentication key
• PIN (personal identification code)
• PUK (personal unlock code)

Application Service Centers :

• Responsible for GSM network add-on services

– Operation and Maintenance Center (OMC)
• Monitoring and control the network
• Usually connect with MSC, BSC, HLR, and other service centers
– Short Message Service Center (SMSC)
• provide short message services
• usually connect to MSC
– Unstructured Supplementary Service Data Center(USSDC)
• provide USSD service in the form of *ID*ID*info#
• usually connect to HLR

Location Registry :

Registration Message Flow

– Inter-LA movement
• In the same MSC
– Inter-MSC movement
• In the same GSM Operator
– Inter-VLR movement
Call Setup :
3G (UMTS) :

A Universal Mobile Telecommunications System (UMTS) network can be visualizedfrom different

angles, such as from the point of view of the user plane, control plane,or the function of each
subsystem. In this module we will look at UMTS from the latter angle, where the focus is on the
different network elements within the network.
The UMTS network architecture can be divided into four subsystems:
• User Equipment
• Radio Access Network
• Core Network including the network elements for service groups
• Network Management Subsystem.
This separation will allow modularity in the composition of networks. The objective is to be able to
combine any 3G CN with any 3G RAN. In addition, technical enhancements and updates of individual
modules will be able to be introduced more easily, quicker and at less expensively due to the separation
of functions. Each subsystem can be further divided into separate technologies. For example, the RAN
(Radio Access Network) is compromised of different air interface technologies, such as GSM EDGE
Radio Access Network (GERAN), UMTS Terrestrial Radio Access Network (UTRAN) and future
solutions such as WLAN, 1ExTREME and 4G.
The core network is today clearly divided into:
• Circuit Switched (CS) domain.
• Packet Switched (PS) domain.
The network elements of the circuit switched domain are offering CS bearer services. They are
inherited from GSM: MSC/VLR and GMSC. The packet switched domain is responsible to offer PS
bearer services. Based on GPRS core network elements, the PS bearer services are currently non-real
time services. But standards are on the way to enhance this infrastructure, so that also real-time services
can be served via the PS domain transmission infrastructure. The CS and PS domains share some
network elements. These common CS and PS domain network elements are the HLR, AC, and EIR.
A set of service platforms was specified in GSM. These are now – in an enhanced version – also
available in UMTS. Network elements for service groups include CAMEL, text telephony, Location
Based Services (LBS) network elements. As can be seen service provisioning is partly located in the
core network and contains all the ervice-enabling platforms that support the multitude of 3G services
that an operator can offer.
UTRAN :
Node B :

One or more Node B’s are controlled and addressed by an RNC. A Node B is a
physical unit for implementation of the UMTS radio interface. It is converting the
physical transmission of the data from fixed network transmission (ATM based) to
WCDMA transmission.
As a central transmission and reception site, it serves on or more UMTS cells. It is
serving one UMTS cell in case of an omni cell with 360o service or, for example, 2, 3,
or 6 sector cells with 180o 120o and 60o service respectively.
The Node B is connected: via Iub interface to its controlling RNC via Uu interface to
the Ues
Radio Network Controller (RNC) :

The UMTS Terrestrial Radio Access Network (UTRAN) is sub-divided into Radio
Network Subsystems RNS. The Radio Network Controller (RNC) is the central
controlling unit of a RNS. It is controlling itself and all the Node Bs of the RNS.
The RNC is connected via the following ATM based interfaces:
• Iub interface: to connected the Node Bs
• Iur interface: to neighbouring RNCs
• Iu interface: to the Core Network CN
Due to different protocol stacks, the Iu interface can be sub-divided into an Iu –ps
interface and an Iu-cs interface.
The Iu-ps interface is used for data and signalling transmission to the PS domain of
the CN, the Iu-cs interface is used for data exchange with the CS domain.
The main task of the RNC is to perform Radio Resource Management RRM for all
UEs in its service area. Therefore, it can be compared to the GSM BSC.
Different to the GSM BSC, it is 100% autonomously responsible for all RRM
decisions. RRM means to be that the RNC is responsible for signalling with the UEs
via Radio Resource Control (RRC) protocol, it is deciding about the allocation of
resources, Handover to other cells and release of resources.
The RNC is holding the RRC connection to the UEs as long as data have to be
transmitted. It is storing the UEs location information to transmit the data to the right
location. The location information can be requested by the CN for Location Based
Services. It is responsible for reliable transmission over the radio interface,
performing Backward Error Correction in acknowledged mode.
It is responsible for Ciphering/De- Ciphering and Integrity Check.
General Architecture for UMTS R.99 :

The UMTS networks are based on GSM Phase 2+ Core Networks. This approach
safeguards the investments made by today's GSM network operators and reduces
the 3G implementation risks. The UMTS Terrestrial Radio Access
Network (UTRAN) is connected to the enhanced Phase 2+ Core Network (CN) via Iu
interface. The GERAN and UTRAN can be connected to the same CN. The GSM
Mobile Station (MS) is connected to the GERAN via GSM radio interface Um, the
UMTS User Equipment (UE) to UTRAN via UMTS radio interface Uu. Important note:
In order to allow a smooth evolution, some network elements are used in the 2G and
3G context, such as the MSC. In this material, it will be normally called MSC. If a
specific reference to the second or third generation is required, it will be called 2G-
MSC and 3G-MSC, respectively. The same is true for the SGSN.
CS Domain
The CS Domain of the UMTS CN consists of the following functions:
MSC : Mobile Services switching Center
GMSC : Gateway MSC
SMS-GMSC : Short Message Service Gateway MSC
SMS-IWMSC : Short Message Service Interworking MSC
VLR : Visitor Location Register
TC/IWF : Transcoding & Interworking Function
PS Domain
The PS Domain of the UMTS CN consists of the following functions:
GGSN : Gateway GPRS Support Node
SGSN : Serving GPRS Support Node
CGF : Charging Gateway Function
BG : Border Gateway Function
Entities common to the CS & PS Domain
HLR : Home Location Register
AUC : Authentication Center
EIR : Equipment Identity Register

Common Elements :

 IN Service :
The term Intelligent Network (IN) stands for IN solutions with INAP protocol (only in
home PLMN) as well as for the CAMEL solution for international roaming.
The IN platform provides the operators the tools for creating completely new services
as well as full access to modify existing one, even on a subscriber basis.
The highly scalable intelligent network platform offers the possibility to efficiently
introduce and operate value adding intelligent services. The best example for this is
the prepaid service in Mobile Network. Not only prepaid services can be built based
on Mobile Network, but also are Virtual Private Network (VPN), Freephone, premium
rate, split charging, and many more.
• Home Location Register :
The Home Location Register (HLR) is a database in charge of the management of
the mobile subscribers. There may be one or more HLRs in GSM PLMN
The HLR is always associated with an Authentication Center (AC). It participates in
different procedures, for e.g.:

It sends all necessary data to the VLR.

It supports the call setup in case of Mobile Termination Call (MTC) by sending
routing information to the Gateway MSC (Interrogation).
It transmits the security parameters from AuC to VLR on request.

An HLR contains different semi-permanent mobile subscriber data, e.g.:

IMSI: International Mobile Subscriber Identity

MSISDN: Mobile Station International ISDN number
Packet Data Protocol (PDP) address(es), e.g. IP address
Services: Bearer Services (BS), Tele Services (TS), Supplementary
Services(SS)
A list of all the group IDs a service subscriber is entitled to use to establish
voice group or broadcast calls
CAMEL Subscriber Information(s)
Service Restrictions (e.g. roaming limitations)

Additionally, the HLR contains different temporary information of the mobile

subscriber, e.g.:

VLR and SGSN addresses

o Mobile station Roaming Number
o SMS flags

 Authentication Center :

The Authentication Center (AuC) is responsible to store the secret Keys of the
subscribers and the security algorithm, which are necessary for the generation of the
GSM and UMTS security parameters. On request of the VLR respectively the SGSN
the AuC generates the security parameters. They are delivered via HLR to
VLR/SGSN to enable Authentication, Ciphering and Integrity Check.
The AuC is connected only with the HLR via the non-standardised interface H. The
HLR requests data for authentication and cipher setting from the AuC. The HLR can
store this data, and makes it available to the VLR and SGSN on demand. The data
delivered from the AuC is used for:

o Mutual authentication of the SIM-card (via IMSI) and the serving PLMN
o Delivering a key to check the communication integrity over the radio path
between the user equipment and the VPLMN
o Ciphering over the radio path between the user equipment and the RNC.

The AuC is responsible to store the secret Keys of the subscribers and the security
algorithm, which are necessary for the generation of the GSM and UMTS security
parameters. On request of the VLR respectively the SGSN the AuC generates themsecurity parameters.
They are delivered via HLR to VLR/SGSN to enable Authentication, Ciphering and Integrity Check.

 Equipment Identity Register :

Equipment Identity Register (EIR) optional database is used to verify the International
Mobile
Equipment Identity (IMEI) numbers. The EIR is organised in three lists:
1. Black list
2. Grey list
3. White list

The black list holds IMEIs, which are forbidden in the PLMN. The grey list holds
IMEIs under supervision by law enforcement agencies, and the white list holds IMEIs,
which are allowed to access the PLMN.
A mobile phone can be also classified as to be unknown in the EIR. The interface F
connects the EIR with the VLR, while the Gf interface links it with the SGSN.
The EIR is connected to:
o The SGSN via Gf interface
o The VLR via F interface

Packet Switched Network Element :

 Serving GPRS Support Node(SGSN)

The Serving GPRS Support Node (SGSN) constitutes an interface between the radio
access network and the core network. It is responsible to perform all necessary
functions to handle packet switched services to and from the mobile phone. SGSN
performs following task:
• Network Access Control
Authentication is one aspect of network access control. Hereby, the network is
checking the validity of the subscriber’s USIM and the USIM is checking the validity
of the network (SGSN). Only if both sides determine a successful authentication,
network services can be used.
Then the subscriber is requesting a service, the Authorization process makes sure,
that the subscriber is allowed to use the requested service. The services, the
subscriber is authorized to use may depend on his location. Other important tasks of
network access control are the collection of Charging Data Records
(CDR) and Operator Determined Barring.

• Mobility Management
Similar to the MSC, the SGSN is responsible for the mobility management, which
includes procedures like routing area update and paging.
Packet Routing and Transfer
Its tasks include the classical packet switching aspects, such as relaying, routing,
address translation, encapsulation, and tunnelling. In contrast to the 2G-SGSN, a 3G-
SGSN is not responsible for ciphering and user data compression.
• Gateway GPRS Support Node(GGSN)

The Gateway GPRS Support Node (GGSN) constitutes the interface between the
PLNM and external packet data networks (PDN). Similar to the SGSN, it is
responsible for the PS service provisioning. GGSN performs following task:
• Network Access Control
Two main network access control tasks are performed with a GGSN: It is responsible
for screening, i.e. the operator can determine, which type of packets is allowed to be
transmitted via a GGSN. Some manufacturers have outsourced this function into a
separate firewall. The GGSN is also responsible for charging data generation.
• Mobility Management
The mobility management tasks include HLR inquiries in case of a mobile terminated
call.
• Packet Routing and Transfer

Packets have to be routed. The GGSN is responsible to relay them from one link to
another, determine the next route with the help of routing tables. The GTP protocol is
used between the GGSN and SGSN/RNC. The user data is encapsulated to be
transparently transmitted between the GGSN and RNC. This is called tunnelling.
• Border Gateway Function
Roaming is possible for packet switched services. Hereby, user data and signalling
information is transmitted between the two PLMN via the interface Gp.
The data has to pass Border Gateways (BG) in each PLMN. The BG interfaces the
PLMN and external, inter-PLMN backbone networks. Based on the roaming
agreement between two operators, border gateways can perform mutual
authentication of each other before a secure connection is established between them
and data flows pass via them.
• Charging gateway Function
Both SGSN and GGSN generate Charging Data Records (CDR). The CDRs routed
via the CGF to the billing system. The interface Ga is used between SGSN/GGSN
and Charging Gateway Function (CGF). CGF is responsible to:
• Manage reliable CDRs
• Act as intermediate storage for CDRs
• Pre-processing of CDRs before forwarding them to the billing centre.
4G (LTE):

The Third Generation Partnership Project (3GPP) Long-Term Evolution/System

Architecture Evolution (LTE/SAE) seeks to take mobile technology to the next
level through the realization of higher bandwidths, better spectrum efficiency, wider
coverage, and full interworking with other access/backend systems. LTE/SAE pro-
poses to do all this using an all-IP architecture with well-defined interworking
with circuit-switched systems. Additionally, the evolved 3GPP system introduced
a hybrid mobile network architecture supporting radio access technologies and sev-
eral mobility mechanisms. We begin this chapter by introducing the LTE network
reference model and define its various functional entities and its interconnection
possibilities. Next, we discuss the end-to-end protocol layering in a LTE network,
network selection and discovery, and IP address allocation. Finally, we describe in
more detail the functional architecture and processes associated with security, QoS,
and mobility management.

ADVANTAGES OF LTE
● Uses OFDMA
● Uses multi-Antennas (MIMO),Spatial Mutliplexing
● Spectral efficiency
● Flexible BW (1.4,3,5,10,15,20 Mhz)
● Simplicity due to IP transport
● Faster scheduling
● Uses FDD and TDD both

NETWORK ARCHITECTURE :
● LTE network is a combination of E-UTRAN & EPC.
● Combination of BSC and BTS in RAN have been replaced by enodeB.
● SGSN is replaced by MME (Mobility management entity) and GGSN gives way
to S/P-GW (Serving & PDN Gateway).
● HLR is replaced by HSS (Home Subscriber Server).
● A new node is introduced called PCRF (Policy Control and Charging Rule
Function).

INTERFACES :

Various Interfaces are as follows:

EnodeB – EnodeB is X2
X2CP – Uses X2-AP over SCTP
X2UP – Uses GTP-U
UE – EnodeB is Uu
EnodeB – MME is S1MME –Uses GTP (Iu)
EnodeB – S-GW is S1U – Uses GTP (Gn)
MME – S-GW is S11 – Uses Gn-GTP control
MME – MME is S10 – Uses Gn-GTP-C
MME – HSS is S6 – Uses Diameter over SCTP
MME – PCRF is Gx
S-GW – P-GW is S5/S8
S5-Roaming & S8-Non-Raoming –Uses either Gn-GTP or PMIP
P/S-GW – External N/w is Gi
LTE Network Elements :

EnodeB
● Radio resource management
● Cell control & MME pooling
● Mobility control in active state
● Header compression/Segmentationof payload on UL/DL
● Ciphering/Deciphering of user data in User plane
● Mapping logical channel to transport channel
● Maintains a UE context for each user locally
● Function of physical layer like Link adaptation ,power control ,modulation etc
● Enforces UL QoS
● HARQ

MME (Mobility Management Entity)

• Processes Signaling b/w UE and Core Network (CN).

• Functions related to bearer management including establishment ,
maintainance and release.
• Function related to connection management including establishment of
connection & security b/w network and UE.
• Responsible mobility management of UE in idle mode.
• Maintains UE context.
• UE Attach/Detach handling.

S-GW (Serving Gateway)

● All data packets are routed through S-GW.
● Acts as an mobility anchor for intra-enodeb handovers.
● Interface for interworking with other 3GPP technology like 2G/3G etc.

P-GW (Packet Data Network Gateway)

● Allocates IP address to all UE’s.
● Acts as point of interface to external data networks.
● QoS enforcement and flow based charging based on the rules given by PCRF.
● Packet filtering and packet screening.

HSS (Home Subscriber Server)

● Holds the subscription data wrt a UE.
● AUC in house.
● QoS profile & any restriction.
● Dynamic information about the location of the UE, MME registered or attached
with.

PCRF (Policy Control & Charging Rule Function)

● Policy control decision making for QoS, etc.
● Control flow based charging with help of PCEF in P-GW.
● QoS authentication according to UE subscription.

Initial Bearer Establishment :