OFFSHOREWINDTECHNOLOGY OVERVIEW

NYSERDAPON995,TaskOrderNo.2, AgreementNo.9998

Forthe

LongIslandNewYorkCity OffshoreWindCollaborative

SubmittedBy: AWSTruewind,LLC 463NewKarnerRoad Albany,NY12205

Date: September17,2009

Contents
Introduction..................................................................................................................................................1 DesignRequirements....................................................................................................................................1 StandardsandCertifications.....................................................................................................................2 Winds........................................................................................................................................................2 Waves........................................................................................................................................................2 Currents....................................................................................................................................................3 OnsiteDataCollection..............................................................................................................................3 SeabedCharacteristicsandWaterDepth.................................................................................................4 OverviewofWindPlantComponents...........................................................................................................5 WindTurbines...........................................................................................................................................5 TowersandFoundations ..........................................................................................................................8 . ElectricalSystemandBalanceofPlant...................................................................................................11 MeteorologyOcean(MetOcean)MonitoringSystem...........................................................................13 O&MFacilityandEquipment..................................................................................................................14 LayoutConsiderations............................................................................................................................15 LogisticsforInstallation&Maintenance....................................................................................................15 ConstructionVessels...............................................................................................................................16 PortAvailability.......................................................................................................................................17 Conclusions.................................................................................................................................................18 AppendixTableofOffshoreWindFarms..................................................................................................19

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INTRODUCTION
Offshore wind energy development has been an almost exclusively European phenomenon since the early1990s.Morethan35windprojectstotalingover1500MWofcapacityarenowoperatingoffthe shoresoffivecountries,mostwithinnorthwestEuropeintheBalticandNorthSeas.Another2,500MW ofcapacityareunderconstructionin16projects.Overall,theEuropeanUnionpredictstherewillbeat least40,000MWofoffshorewindenergyinEuropebytheyear2020.Chinahasalsobegunconstruction ontheSeaBridgeWindFarmintheBohaiSea,itsfirstoffshorewindprojectscheduledforcompletionin 2010.AlthoughnooffshorewindprojectsareunderconstructionorinoperationyetinNorthAmerica, proposedprojectsoronesintheactivedevelopmentphaseexistinseveralstatesandprovinces.These includeBritishColumbia,Delaware,Massachusetts,NewYork,Ohio,Ontario,RhodeIsland,andTexas. This large body of offshore experience provides an excellent basis to understand the wind turbine technologies andfoundationdesignslikelytobeapplicabletotheLongIslandNewYorkCityOffshore WindCollaborativesprojectareaforawindfacilitybuiltinthe20142016timeframe.Theobjectiveof thisshortreportistosummarizeapplicableturbinetechnologiesandfoundationdesignsandtoidentify theprimarydesignparametersforturbinesandfoundations.

DESIGNREQUIREMENTS
The design of an offshore wind project is based on the environmental conditions to be expected at a proposedsiteovertheprojectslifetime(typically20ormoreyears).Theseenvironmentalconditions are primarily defined by the wind, wave, current, water depth and soil and seabed characteristics. Figure 1 illustrates the various dynamic factors impacting a wind turbines external environment. Different project components are more sensitive to some of these characteristics than others. For example, a wind turbines rotor and nacelle assembly are most sensitive to wind and other atmospheric conditionswhilethesupport structure (tower and foundation) design is more dependentonhydrodynamic and seabed conditions. Windturbinemodelstendto be designed for applicability foraspecifiedrangeofwind conditions whereas turbine support structures are usually engineered for on site conditions. This section provides additional insight into the design parameters relevant to the entire project.
Figure1:SiteConditionsAffectinganOffshoreWindFarm1

1Source:Robinson&Musial,NationalRenewableEnergyLaboratory.(2006,October).OffshoreWindEnergy

Overview.Webinar.Usedwithpermission.

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StandardsandCertifications
Severaldesignguidelinesandstandardshavebeendevelopednationallyandinternationallythatapply towindturbines,windturbinefoundationsandoffshorestructures.WhiletheUnitedStatesdoesnot currently have any specific standards for offshore wind turbine design and construction, several Europeaninstitutionsdo.GermanischerLloyd(GL),DetNorskeVeritas(DNV),andTUVNordareamong the bodies that offer type certification and guidelines for offshore wind turbines and related components and processes. Additionally, the IEC 614003 International Standard Design Requirements For Offshore Wind Turbines (2008) provides criteria for offshore site conditions assessment, and establishesfivecriticaldesignrequirementsforoffshorewindturbinestructures.2Theseguidelineswere developed to ensure that typecertified wind turbines, support structures and related processes meet the requirements dictated by the site conditions. In the U.S. there are ongoing efforts to establish guidelinesthatintegratetheAmericanPetroleumInstitutes(API)recommendedpractices(APIRP2A) foroffshoreplatformsintotheoffshorewindindustryspractices.3

Winds
Wind conditions are important in defining not only the loads imposed on all of a turbines structural components,butalsoinpredictingtheamountoffutureenergyproductionatdifferenttimescales.The measured onsite wind resource strongly influences the layout of turbines within a defined area as a functionoftheprevailingwinddirection(s).Desiredwinddataparametersincludethefollowing: Windspeedannual,monthly,hourly,andsubhourly;preferablyathubheight Speedfrequencydistributionnumberofhoursperyearwithineachspeedinterval Windshearrateofchangeofwindspeedwithheight Windveerchangeofwinddirectionwithheight,especiallyacrosstherotorplane Turbulenceintensitythestandarddeviationofwindspeedssampledovera10minperiodasa functionofthemeanspeed Winddirectiondistribution Extremewindgustsandreturnperiods(50and100year).

Airtemperature,seasurfacetemperatureandothermeteorologicalstatistics(icing,lightning,humidity, etc.)arealsodesiredwhenevaluatingaproposedsite.

Waves
In addition to the loading forces imposed on a turbines support structure, waves also determine the accessibility of offshore projects by vessels during construction and operations. Desired wave data parametersincludethefollowing: Significantwaveheightaverageheightofthethirdhighestwaves Extremewaveheightaverageheightofthehighest1%ofallwaves Maximumobservedwaveheight Wavefrequencyanddirectionspectra Correlationwithwindspeedsanddirection

2IECwebsite:http://www.iec.ch/online_news/etech/arch_2007/etech_0907/prodserv_2.htm 3ComparativeStudyofOWTGStandards,MMIEngineering,June29,2009

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Wavestendtobeirregularinshapeandheightandmayapproachawindturbinefrommorethanone directionsimultaneously.Theprobabilityandcharacteristicsofbreakingwavesarealsoimportant.The correlationofwindandwavesisacriticaldesigncriterionforanoffshorewindturbine.Thiscorrelation is normally expressed as a joint probability of wind speeds and wave heights, and may include wave frequency as well. In addition to defining extreme aerodynamic and hydrodynamic loads, it is important to assess the dynamic vibrations induced upon the entire turbine structure. The effects of resonant motion from certain wind and wave loads may be a primary designdriver.
Figure2:StatisticalWaveDistributionandDataParameters4

Currents
Currentsaregenerallycharacterizedeitherassubsurfacecurrentsproducedbytides,stormsurges,and atmosphericpressurevariations,orasnearsurfacecurrentsgeneratedbythewind.Currentscandrive sediment transport (e.g. sand waves) and foundation scouring. They can also affect sea bottom characteristicsandvesselmotionduringconstructionorservicevisits.

OnsiteDataCollection
Asaccurateestimationsofenergyproductionpotentialarerequirementsbythefinancialcommunityfor offshorewindprojects,precisedefinitionofalloftheseatmosphericandaquaticparametersiscritical. Theseparameterscanbederivedfromvarioussourcesdependingonthestageofprojectdevelopment. Earlystageconceptualplanningreliesmostlyonexistingclimatologicaldataandmodelresults(suchas windmaps).Advancedstagesrelyononsitemeasurementcampaignslasting13years. Meteorological,waveandcurrentdataaremonitoredusingavarietyofinstrumentation.Atmospheric dataismeasuredbytallmeteorologicalmastsinstalledonoffshoreplatformstoassessthesiteswind resource for both energy assessment and maximum loading purposes. These measurements can be complemented by remote sensing devices (such as lidar and sodar), weather buoys, and regional weather observations to assess atmospheric conditions throughout and surrounding the project area. Wave and current data are collected by instrumented buoys and acoustic Doppler current profilers (ADCPs). Additional information acquired from specialized radar and satellite data, as well as regional andhistoricsurfacedatasources,canfurthercharacterizetheoffshoreenvironment.

permission.

4Source:CooperativeProgramforOperationalMeteorology,EducationandTraining(COMET).Usedwith

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SeabedCharacteristicsandWaterDepth
The geologic and bathymetric characteristics of a project site are significant design parameters for offshore wind turbines. While the entire system turbine, tower, substructure, and foundation is affected by these parameters, the foundation is particularly sensitive to the site conditions. The site bathymetry(waterdepth)willprimarilydrivethesizeoftheunderwaterstructureanditsexposureto hydrodynamic forces. The seabed soil properties and profiles will influence the suitable foundation types.Fromasystemperspective,thegeologicandbathymetriccharacteristicshelpdeterminetheaxial and lateral pile responses, loadcarrying capabilities, resonant frequencies, ultimate strength, fatigue strength,andacceptabledeformationoftheoffshoresupportstructure. A geologic survey of the site often begins with a desktop review of available data to understand conditions likely found onsite. Detailed design and engineering work involves a multistep onsite investigationprocess,includingseismicreflectionmethodscombinedwithsoilsamplingandpenetration tests.Thesetechniquesobtaininformationaboutsedimentcharacteristicsandstratificationtodepthsof at least 60 meters (200 feet) below the sea floor. Sediment and subsurface descriptors include the following: Soilclassifications Verticalandhorizontalstrengthparameters Deformationproperties Permeability Stiffnessanddampingparametersforpredictionofthedynamicbehaviorofthewindturbine structure.

The first phase of onsite investigation, commonly referred to as the geophysical survey, employs remote sensing technology, often multibeam sonar and/orhighresolutionseismicreflection.Thisphase, knownashydrographicsurveying,generallyprovides a detailed bathymetric map of the sea bottom as well as general soil characteristics. Both techniques rely on a vesselmounted array of energy emitters and receivers that can carry out the initial site investigationinarelativelyshortperiodoftime(see Figure 3). Advanced design work usually requires direct sampling of bottom soils, typically at each foundation location. This phase of investigation involvesvibracoresamplingtodepthsofupto10m (33 ft) or conventional borings to much greater depths. Retrieved soils are analyzed to determine theirtexturalandengineeringproperties.
Figure3:StatisticalWaveDistributionandDataParameters5

permission.

5Source:CooperativeProgramforOperationalMeteorology,EducationandTraining(COMET).Usedwith

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OVERVIEWOFWINDPLANTCOMPONENTS
Anoffshorewindplantsprincipalcomponentsaretheturbines,towers,foundations,electriccollection and transmission system (including substations), and other balance of plant items. These components aredescribedindetailinthissection.

Figure4:SystemViewofanOffshoreWindFarm6

WindTurbines
Windturbinesaretheelectricitygeneratingcomponentofanoffshorewindplant.AsshowninFigure5, the turbine sits atop the support structure, which is comprised of the tower and foundation. The standard turbine design consists of a nacelle housing the main mechanical components (i.e. gearbox, driveshaft,andgenerator),thehub,andthebladerotorassembly(seeFigure6). Offshore wind turbines have historically been adaptations of onshore designs, although some manufacturers are now developing new models designed specifically for the offshore environment. International standards for wind turbine classes have been defined to qualify turbines for their suitabilityindifferentwindspeedandturbulenceregimes. Earlyoffshoreinstallationsdeployedsmall(lessthan1MW)windturbines,whichwasthetypicalland based turbine size at the time. To date, Vestas and Siemens have been the most prominent offshore windturbinesuppliers.Thesetwosupplierswereamongthefirsttoofferoffshoretechnology,entering the market in 2000 and 2003, respectively. Consequently, Vestas V80 2 MW and V90 3 MW models havebeeninstalledpredominantlythroughoutEurope,ashaveSiemens2.3MWand3.6MWmodels. Theseturbineshaverotordiametersofbetween80and107m,andhubheightsbetween60and105m, whicharesignificantlylargerthantheturbinesdeployedintheearliestprojects. In recent years, larger offshore turbines have been developed by BARD Engineering, Multibrid, and REpower.These5MWmachinesstandata90meterorgreaterhubheight,withrotordiametersof116 to122m.Thesenextgenerationturbinesarethefirstbatchofmachinesdesignedmorespecifically for offshore applications, as exhibited by their greater rated capacity and offshorespecific design features.Nordexhasalsoenteredtheoffshoremarket,adaptingthe2.5MWN90(HS)onshoremodel foroffshoreapplications.

6Source:TrollWindPower(www.trollwindpower.no).Usedwithpermission.

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Figure5:PrincipalComponentsandDimensionsofanOffshoreWindStructure7

Other manufacturers are also in the process of developing offshore turbine models, including Clipper and Enercon, but these designs have not reached the same level of commercial development as the turbinesofferedbyVestas,Siemens,BARD,Multibrid,andREpower.GeneralElectricformerlyoffereda 3.6 MW offshore turbine, but has since exited the offshore market in order to focus on its onshore productline.

7Source:ModifiedfromtheHornsRevwindproject,VattenfallAB.Usedwithpermission.

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Figure6:MainComponentsofaHorizontalAxisWindTurbine8

Table1summarizestodayscommerciallyavailableoffshorewindturbinetechnologies.Theavailability of some models is limited, however, either due to supply constraints or due to the lack of a 60 Hz version required for installations in North America (European versions are 50 Hz). These limitations narrowthelistofturbinemodelsavailabletodayforinstallationintheUnitedStatestofour:theVestas V80andV90;theSiemensSWT2.3;andtheNordexN90.Manufacturerswithout60Hzversionsoftheir producttodayarelikelytobuildU.S.compatibleunitsinthefutureoncetheybecomeconfidentthata sustainableoffshoremarketisestablished.Siemens,forexample,hastentativeplanstoreleasea60Hz versionoftheir3.6MWmachineattheendof2010.
Table1:CommerciallyAvailableOffshoreWindTurbines Rated Grid Rotor Dateof Hub Model Power Frequency Diameter Availability Height(m) (MW) (Hz) (m) 5.0 20082009 5 50 122 90 M5000 N90(HS) 5M 3.6 2.3 V80 V90 2005 2006 2005 2005 2003 2000 2004 5 2.5 5 3.6 2.3 2 3 50 50,60 50 50 50,60 50,60 50,60 116 90 126 107 82,93 80 90 90 80 90 80,83.5 6080 67,80 80,105 No. Turbines Installed9 0 0 1 8 79 130 208 96

Manufacturer BARD Multibrid Nordex REpower Siemens Siemens Vestas Vestas

8Source:CityofHendricks,MN.Usedwithpermission. 9Notincludingprototypes.BasedondatatableinAppendix;onlyincludeddatafromfarmsalreadycommissioned atthetimeofthisreport.

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Turbines specially designed and/or typecertified for offshore operation have components and characteristics suited for longterm operation in their environments. Among the systems unique to offshorespecific turbines are special climate control systems for the nacelle and other sensitive componentsandenhancedcorrosionprotection.

TowersandFoundations
Offshorewindturbinesaretypicallymountedontubulartowersthatrangefrom60to105metersabove the sea surface. Latticetype towers can also be used. The towers are fixed to the foundation, often employingatransitionpieceasaninterfacebetweenthetowerandfoundation.Thesetowersallowfor the turbine to capture winds at heights far above the waters surface, where the wind resource is generallymoreenergeticandlessturbulent. Foundation technology is designed according to site conditions. Maximum wind speed, water depth, waveheights,currents,andsoilpropertiesareparametersthataffectthefoundationtypeanddesign. While the industry has historically relied primarily on monopile and gravitybased foundations, the increasingnumberofplannedprojectsindeeperwaterhasmotivatedresearchandpilotinstallationsfor morecomplexmultimemberdesignswithbroaderbasesandlargerfootprints,suchasjackets,tripods, and tripiles, to accommodate water depths exceeding 20 to 30meters. These designs, some of which wereadaptedfromtheoffshoreoilandgasindustry,areexpectedtoaccommodateprojectsinstalledin deepwater.Thesebasicdesigns,alongwiththeirprosandcons,arehighlightedbelow.Basedonthe water depths (1837 m) and wave conditions of the proposed offshore Long Island project area, it is likelythatoneofthesemultimemberlargerfootprintdesignswillbeselected. MonopileFoundation Themonopilehashistoricallybeenthemostcommonlyselectedfoundationtypeduetoitslowercost, simplicity,andappropriatenessforshallowwater(lessthan20m).Thedesignisalonghollowsteelpole that extends from below the seabed to the base of the turbine. The monopile generally does not require any preparation of the seabed and is installed by drilling or driving the structure into the ocean floor to depths of up to 40 meters. The monopile is relatively simple to manufacture, keeping its cost down despite reaching weights of over 500 tons and diameters of up to 5.1 m, which can be heavier than some more complex foundation designs.
Figure7:MonopileFoundation10,11

Whilethemonopileisanappropriatefoundationchoiceformanyprojects,itcanbeunsuitableinsome applications.Thesefoundationsarenotwellsuitedforsoilstratawithlargeboulders.Additionallythe requiredsizeofanacceptablemonopileincreasesdisproportionatelyasturbinesizeincreasesandsite

10Source:GrontmijCarlbro.Website:

11Source:deVries,W.E.(2007).EffectsofDeepWateronMonopileSupportStructuresForOffshoreWind

http://www.middelgrunden.dk/MG_UK/project_info/mg_40mw_offshore.htm.Usedwithpermission.

Turbines.InConferenceProceedingsEuropeanOffshoreWind2007.Berlin.Usedwithpermission.

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conditionsbecomemorechallenging.Therefore,siteswithdeeperwater,harshwavesandcurrents,and larger turbines may require the implementation of more complex and sturdier designs, such as the jacket,thetripod,orthetripile. GravityBaseFoundation Analternativetothemonopilefoundation isthegravitybasefoundation.Historically deployed in shallow waters (usually less than 15 meters), the gravity foundation is now installed at depths of up to 29 meters. This technology relies on a wide footprint and massive weight to counter theforcesexertedontheturbinefromthe wind and waves. The gravity foundation differs from the monopile in that it is not drivenintotheseabed,butratherrestson top of the ocean floor. Depending upon site geologic conditions, this foundation may require significant site preparation including dredging, filling, leveling, and scourprotection.
Figure8:GravityBaseFoundation12

Thesestructuresareconstructedalmostentirelyonshoreofweldedsteelandconcrete.Itisarelatively economical construction process, but necessitates very robust transports to deploy onsite. Once complete, the structures are floated out to the site, sunk, and filled with ballast to increase their resistancetotheenvironmentalloads.Whilethesestructurescanweighoverto7,000tons,theycanbe removedcompletelyduringdecommissioningphaseoftheproject. JacketFoundation The jacket foundation is an application of designs commonly employed by the oil and gas industry for offshore structures. The examples currently deployed arefoursided,Ashapedtrusslikelatticestructuresthat supportlarge(5MW)offshorewindturbinesinstalledin deepwater(40+meters). Thelegsofthejacketareset ontheseabedandapileisdriveninateachofthefour feettosecurethestructure.Thisfoundationhasawider crosssection than the monopile, strengthening it against momentary loads from the wind and waves. Becauseofitsgeometry,thejacketfoundationisableto be relatively lightweight for the strength that it offers, weighingapproximately600tons.
Figure9:JacketFoundation13,14

12Source:COWIA/SforThorntonBankWindProject.Usedwithpermission. 13Source:Seidel.M.(2007).JacketSubstructuresfortheREpower5MWindTurbine.InConferenceProceedings 14Source:ScaldisSalvage&MarineContractors.PhotofromBeatriceWindProject.Usedwithpermission.

EuropeanOffshoreWind2007.Berlin.Usedwithpermission.

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Although its design is more complex than that of a monopile, the manufacturing process is generally wellunderstoodfromtheoffshoreoilandgasindustry.Thenecessarymaterials(i.e.pipes)arealready available due to their prevalent use in this same industry. Once manufacturing and deployment practicescanbescaleduptoeconomicallymeettheneedsoflargeprojects,thesefoundationswilllikely becomethepredominantdeeperwaterfoundationtype. TripodFoundation For deep water installations, the tripod foundation adapts the monopile design by expanding its footprint. The three legs of the structure are seated on the seabed, and support a central cylindrical section that connects to the wind turbinesbase.Pilesaredriventhrough each of the three feet to secure the structure to the bed. The three supportive legs resist momentary loads exerted on the turbine. Tripod foundations are relatively complex and time consuming to manufacture, and also are more massive than jackets. In caseswhenusingatraditionalmonopile becomes unwieldy for size reasons, a tripoddesigncanreducetheamountof material needed by broadening the foundationsbase.
Figure10:TripodFoundation15,16

TripileFoundation Thetripilefoundationisalsoarelativelynewadaptionofthetraditionalmonopile foundation.Insteadofasinglebeam,threepilesaredrivenintotheseabed,andare connectedjustabovethewaterssurfacetoatransitionpieceusinggroutedjoints. This transition piece is connected to the turbine towers base. The increased strength and wider footprint created by the three piles is expected to allow for turbine installationinwaterupto50metersindepth. The tripile design is easily adaptable to a varietyofbottomtype conditions,aseachor all of the piles can be manufactured appropriatelytomatchsitespecificconditions while still being connected to the standard transitionpiece.
Figure11:TripileFoundation17,18

15Source:AREVAMultibrid/JanOelker2009.Usedwithpermission. 16Source:AREVAMultibrid2009.Usedwithpermission. 17Source:deVries,E.(November18,2008).5MWBARDNearshoreWindTurbineErectedinGermany. 18Source:CopyrightBARDGroup(www.bardoffshore.de).Usedwithpermission.

RenewableEnergyWorld.RetrievedJuly2009fromwww.renewableenergyworld.com.Usedwithpermission.

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SuctionBucketAlternativetoPiles Suction bucket foundations can conceivably be applied to any of the foundation types previously described as an alternative to driving piles deep into the seabed. Although research continues, the developmentofbucketfoundationswassetbacksubstantiallybyasignificantfailurein2007duringa demonstration phase. Instead of a slender beam being driven deep below the surface, bucket foundations employ a wider based cylinder, which does not extend as far below the floor, but still adequately resists loading due to its greater diameter and reactive soil forces. Because of their greater width, the cylinders are not driven under the surface, but rather are vacuumsuctioned into position under the seabed. Depending on soil conditions encountered at a site, the suction bucket alternative may be preferable to deep, slender piles for economic reasons and for ease of installation.
Figure12:SuctionBucketAlternativesfortheMonopileandTripodFoundations19

ElectricalSystemandBalanceofPlant
Additional componentsofanoffshorewindproject includetheelectricalcabling,thesubstations,and themeteorologicalmast.Theelectricalcablingservestwofunctions:collectionwithintheproject,and transmission to shore. Both types of cable may have trenching requirements and specifications for armoring.Eachsubstationtypicallyincludesoneormorestepuptransformers,switchgear,andremote control and communications equipment for the project. Procurement and coordination of equipment, crews, and materials for the balanceofplant installation is a nontrivial task, due to the specialized natureoftheinstallationandthelimitednumberofexperiencedcompaniesinthearena.Therefore,the balanceofplant portion of development has the potential to drive project scheduling and can be a significantportionoftheoverallprojectprice. The typical offshore wind farms electrical system consists of the individual turbine transformers, the collection system, the offshore substation, the transmission line to the mainland, and the onshore transmissioncomponents.Eachofthesecomponentscanimposeanelectricallossonthegrossenergy production collected by the plant, so electrical system design is an important aspect of the overall system.
19Source:Villalobos,A.(2009).FoundationsForOffshoreWindTurbines.RevistaIngenieradeConstruccin,v.24

n.1.RetrievedJuly2009fromhttp://www.scielo.cl.Usedwithpermission.

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PadMount/34.5KilovoltTransformers Individual turbine transformers for offshore turbines differ from those for onshore turbines. Rather thanbeingmountedontheground,theindividualturbinetransformeriseitherlocateduptowerinthe nacelle, or at the base of the turbine (down tower) where it is enclosed to protect it from the harsh marine elements. Each transformer takes the energy generated by the turbine and converts it to approximately34.5kilovoltsforconnectionwiththecollectionsystem. CollectionSystem The collection system is a series of submarine conductors that are laid using trenching technology, such as utilizing high pressurewaterjets.As shown in Figure 13, the collection system isdesignedtoconnect multiple turbines in each string before delivering power to the projects offshore substation.Thisdesign minimizes cost while maintaining the electrical reliability of thelines.
Figure13:OptimalCollectionSystemDesign20

OffshoreSubstation Linesfromthecollectionsystemtypicallycometogetherattheonsiteoffshoresubstation,wherethe power is transferred to high voltage submarine lines for transmission back to shore. The offshore substation is sized with the appropriate power rating (MVA) for the project capacity, and steps the line voltage up from the collection system voltage to a highervoltagelevel,whichisusuallythat of the point of interconnection (POI). This allows for all the power generated bythefarmtoflowbacktothemainland onhighervoltagelines,whichminimizes the electrical line loss and increases the overallelectricalefficiency.
Figure14:NystedOffshoreSubstationandWindFarm21

DONGEnergy.

20Source:BarrowOffshoreWind.Website:http://www.bowind.co.uk/project.shtml.Usedwithpermissionfrom 21Source:NystedOffshoreWindfarm.Website:

http://www.dongenergy.com/SiteCollectionDocuments/NEW%20Corporate/Nysted/WEB_NYSTED_UK.pdf. UsedwithpermissionfromDONGEnergy.

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TransmissiontoShore Transmissionlinesbacktoshorearespecifiedatanappropriatevoltageandpowerrating(MVA).The size of these cables is dependent on the projects capacity and the amount of power that will be transmittedtotheshore,asshowninthetablebelow.Thetransmissionconnectstheoffshoresystem (turbines, collection system, and offshore substation) to the mainland. Like the collection system, trenchingandscourprotectiontechnologiesareemployedtoinstalltransmissionlines.
Table2:RequiredLineVoltageforVariousProjectSizes Project Size Minimum Line Voltage (AC) 35 MW 35 kV 70 MW 69 kV 135 MW 115 kV 160 MW 138 kV 210 MW 161 kV 300 MW 230 kV 1000 MW 345 kV 2000 MW 500 kV

High voltage underwater transmission cabling is an important design and contracting consideration duringtheoffshorewinddevelopmentprocess.Therearefewmanufacturersoftheappropriatecable, andthefabricationandleadtimeissignificant.Thespecializedinstallationvesselsarerelativelyrare, costlyandinhighdemand.Thesefactorscontributetoaninstalledcostforunderwatertransmissionof aroundtwotothreetimesmorethananequivalentvoltageonlandtransmission. OnshoreTransmissionComponents(PointofInterconnection) Dependingonwheretheunderwatercablingmakeslandfall,traditionalburiedoroverheadtransmission linesmayneedtobeconstructedonshore.Attheonshoresubstationorswitchyard,energyfromthe offshorewindfarmisinjectedintotheelectricpowergrid.Ifthepointofinterconnection(POI)voltage isdifferentthanthatofthesubmarinetransmission,asubstationusingappropriatelysizedtransformers isusedtomatchthePOIvoltage;otherwise,aswitchyardisusedtodirectlyinterconnectthewindfarm. Either the offshore or onshore substation acts as the power offtake point. At this point, power generatedismeteredandpurchasedviaaPowerPurchaseAgreement (PPA) withalocal utility,orby enteringtheIndependentSystemOperatorsmerchantmarket. For projects close to shore, it sometimes is not economical to construct both an offshore and an onshore substation. In these cases, the collection system is tied into a single substation (typically onshore),whichalsofunctionsasthepointofinterconnectionwiththelocalelectricgrid.

MeteorologyOcean(MetOcean)MonitoringSystem
Whilestandardpracticesforoffshorewinddevelopmentarestillevolving,theinstallationofanoffshore meteorologymonitoringsystempriortoprojectconstructionisbecomingmorecommon,andisstrongly recommended.Ifsitedproperly,themonitoringstationwillalsobringaddedvaluethroughtheentire operatinglifeoftheproject.Thepurposeofthemonitoringplatformistoprovidecontinuous,realtime characterization of the weather and wave conditions within the project area. It can also serve as a platform for environmental monitoring (e.g. bird and bat, sea organisms, etc.) and other related programs.Anoffshoremonitoringplatform(orplatforms)isanimportantcomponenttothebalanceof

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plantforan offshorewindfarm,asit willultimatelyprovidethedatanecessaryforcharacterizingthe siteconditions,performance,andenvironmentalimpactofthefarm. Theplatformtypicallyaccommodatesanoffshoremeteorologicalmast,whichhasmultipleusesduring theprojectslifetime.Intheplanningstageoftheproject,datafromthemastisusedforwindresource assessment. Oftentimes the platform used to qualify a site during the development phase is retained after installation to extend the climatologic record already initiated. This information is useful for verifyingonsiteconditions,turbinepowerperformancetesting,operationalperformanceassessment, due diligence evaluation, and O&M management. For these purposes, the monitoring platform and meteorological tower should ideally be located just upwind of the project area in the prevailing wind direction:itsuseforpowerperformancetesting,forexample,isdependentonitsunwakedplacement withintwotofourrotordiametersofthetestturbine(s). The monitoring station can also provide valuable input data for wind forecasting and generation scheduling in the nexthour and nextday markets. Forecasting is a beneficial tool for market bidding strategy and transmission system reliability. In May 2009, NYISO enacted a Wind Management Plan, which requires all wind farms to supply meteorological data to the NYISO, and in turn to the NYISOs ForecastingVendor.Theoffshoremeteorologicalmastcanbeusedtosupplythenecessaryresourceand climatologicinformationtocomplywiththeWindManagementPlanrequirements.

O&MFacilityandEquipment
Thedesignoftheoperationsandmaintenance(O&M)facilityandtheequipmentprocuredforoffshore turbineaccessisdictatedbysitespecificandenvironmentalconditions.AwelldevelopedO&Mservice plan based on these parameters is essential to minimize turbine downtime, which results in lost revenue.TheO&Mfacility,usuallyhousedatanearbyport,providesrapidaccesstotheprojectareafor turbinemaintenanceandrepairs;however,incaseswheretheprojectareaisagreaterdistancefrom shore, O&M operations could conceivably be housed out of an expanded substation facility, where sparepartscouldbestoredforimmediateinstallation.Thiswouldallowforaquickerresponsetimeto turbinefailures. The O&M staff is outfitted with vessels to support repair efforts. Accessibility is a prime driver for availability,sovesselscapableofoperatingsafelyeveninslightlyhigherseasormoreadverseconditions can improve farm performance. In situations where site access may be precluded by rough water conditions,helicopteraccessmayprovideamorecostlybutspeedyalternativetogetturbinesupand running as soon as possible. Helicopter access from an oversized substation may prove to be more effectivethanfromonshore,especiallyiftheprojectisagreatdistancefromshore,duetothecostand complexityofflyingahelicopteragreatdistancewhilecarryingturbinerepairparts.

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LayoutConsiderations
Wind farm layout and spacing are design considerations that can haveasignificanteffecton project performance, size and cost. A number of factors can drive how a wind farm is spatially configured. One factor is the potential constraint of limiting the projects size dimensions due to boundary issues imposed by legal, regulatory, or geophysicalreasons.
Figure15:HornsRevProjectLayout22

Another factor is facility performance and production efficiency, which influence turbine spacing and arrangementrelativetotheprevailingwinddirection(s).Asgeneralpractice,spacingbetweenturbines alignedinarowisontheorderof5to10rotordiameters,andspacingbetweenrowsisbetween7and 12rotordiameters.Rowstendtobealignedperpendiculartotheprevailingwinddirection.Thespacing goalistoreducetheimpactsofwindflowdisturbances(wakes)createdbywindturbinesintheupwind portions of a project area on the rest of the turbine array. These flow disturbances can reduce the energyoutputofindividualturbinesby50%ormorecomparedtounaffectedturbines.Theyalsocreate added turbulence to the flow field, thereby increasing mechanical loading on impacted turbines and decreasing component fatigue life. As future offshore projects become larger in size, the significance andpotentialimpactofthesedeeparrayeffectsbecomesgreater. Otherlayoutfactorscanincludesensitivitytoenvironmentalandaestheticimpactsandtoexistinguses (suchasvesseltraffic,fishing,airspaceusage,etc.)withintheprojectarea.Theprojectlayoutofthe160 MW Horns Rev wind farm in Denmark (Figure 15) illustrates an offshore wind farm array having a turbinespacingof7by7rotordiameters.

LOGISTICSFORINSTALLATION&MAINTENANCE
Logisticsforoffshorewindfarminstallationarefarmorecomplexthanthoseforonshoreprojects.This iscompoundedbythelackofanexperiencebaseorinstallationinfrastructureintheUnitedStates.This sectionprovidesanoverviewofsomelogisticalfactorstoconsiderwhendevelopinganoffshorewind farm. Unfavorableweatherandseastatesarealeadingcauseofconstructiondelaysandinstallationcostrisks. The safety of crews, vessels and equipment takes precedence over construction schedules. It is anticipatedthattheweatherwindowforinstallingwindturbinesintheAtlanticOceansouthofLong Island will be limited to the midspring to midautumn seasons. Even within these more favorable seasons, there will be periods of unsuitable conditions for work on the water or at hub height.
22Source:HornsRevwindproject,VattenfallAB.Usedwithpermission.

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Strategies have been employed in Europe to minimize the number of vessel transits from ports to offshoresites,therebyreducingthesensitivityoftransportationtofoulweather.

ConstructionVessels
Heavy construction vessels must be employed to install an offshore wind farm. Special purpose vessels, such as theJumpingJackBargeshowninFigure 16,nowexistinEuropeforthepurpose of wind farm construction. Access to existing European installation vessels for use in the United States may be barred by the Merchant Marine Act of 1920,whichisalsoknownastheJones Act. According to this act, energy related projects being constructed in U.S. waters are typically required to employ U.S. vessels, although an allowance may be made if no suitable vesselexists.23
Figure16:JumpingJackBargeforOffshoreWindFarmInstallation24

This jurisdiction may restrict the use of a foreignoffshoreliftboatforconstructionofan offshorewindfarminthecoastofLongIsland. It is estimated that the construction of a U.S. liftboat could cost $150 million.25 Since the Jones Act restricts a nonU.S. liftboat from picking up equipment from a U.S. dock, complications with the Jones Act may be avoidedbyusingaU.S.ownedfeederbargeto transport installation equipment from the docktoaEuropeanliftboatonsite.Additional investigation is recommended to assess the implicationsoftheJonesActonoffshorewind farmconstructionintheUnitedStates.
Figure17:HeavyConstructionVesselInstallingWindTurbineonJacketFoundation26

23Eisenhower,Brian.2007.Memorandum:U.S.CabotageLawsandOffshoreEnergyProjects.June15. 24Source:JumpingJackGoesDown(July31,2007).VerticalPressNewsArchive.RetrievedJuly2009from 25SeeHowtoKeepUpWiththeJonesAct.NorthAmericanWindPower,Vol.6,No.5:June2009. 26Source:ScaldisSalvage&MarineContractors.Website:http://www.scaldissmc.com/renewable.htm.Used

http://law.rwu.edu/sites/marineaffairs/content/pdf/Eisenhower.pdf

www.vertikal.net.Website:http://www.vertikal.net/en/stories.php?id=4366.Usedwithpermission. withpermission.

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PortAvailability
Nearby ports for wind farm installation must be able to accommodate deep draft vessels and support large equipment offloading. In addition,theymusthaveanadequatelaydown area for turbine components. Typically, the available port laydown space should be roughly threequarters to one acre of land areaperturbine.27Ideally,ifadequatespaceis available at the installation port, hub and bladeassembliescanbeconstructedonshore, minimizing the number of offshore crane operations per turbine installed. This makes the construction schedule less sensitive to weatherdelays.
Figure18:PortofMostynConstructionBaseforBurboBankOffshoreWindFarm(UK)28

A nearby port is also essential to accommodate the O&M activity duringtheoperationalphaseofthe project.However,therequirements for port specifications are far less demanding because of the much smaller size of service vessels and the limited requirements for any laydownarea.Alandinglocationfor a service helicopter may be desirableifthismodeoftransportis used as an alternative to surface vessels, especially when sea states frequently limit the use of surface vessels.
Figure19:HelicopterAccesstoVestasTurbine29

27Forexample,BurboBankemployed20acresoflaydownareafor25turbines;andthePortofRomoenear

Butendiekisplanningtocreate60acresoflaydownspaceforthe80turbineproject.Thismetricisalso dependentonturbinesize.Sources:http://www.porttechnology.org/article.php?id=2777, http://www.greenjobs.com/public/industrynews/inews06092.htm 28Source:ThePortofMostyn(2008).Usedwithpermission. 29Source:NickyPlok/UNIFLYA/S.Usedwithpermission.

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CONCLUSIONS
Thisreporthasprovidedanoverviewofoffshorewindsystemtechnologiesanddesigncriteriathatare likely to be relevant to the Collaboratives proposed offshore project south of Long Island. Key considerationsincludethefollowing: Theultimateselectionofasuitablewindturbinemodelsandfoundationdesignswilldependon a sitespecific evaluation of the external environmental conditions of the project area. These conditions encompass the winds, weather, waves, currents, water depths, and seabed characteristics.

Therearealimitednumberofcommerciallyavailableoffshorespecificturbinemodelsavailable todayforuseintheUnitedStates.Thecapacityratingofindividualunitsisbetween2MWand 5MW. The preferred foundation type for the proposed project area is likely to be a multimember (jacket,tripod,ortripile)designthatissuitablefordeeperwaters(>20m). Constructionscheduleswillbehighlyweatherandseastatedependent.Thehigherfrequency of unfavorable conditions during the cold season will likely restrict the primary construction seasontothemidspringtomidautumnperiod. AccesstoexistinginstallationvesselsmayberestrictedforU.S.basedprojectsduetoJonesAct restrictions,therebynecessitatingcreativeconstructionmethodsandlikelythedevelopmentof domesticspecialpurposevessels.

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APPENDIXTABLEOFOFFSHOREWINDFARMS
ProjectName Vindeby Lely TunoKnob Dronten/IreneVorrink Bockstigen Blyth Middelgrunden YttreStengrund HornsRev Samsoe Utgrunden Frederikshavn NorthHoyle Sky2000 EmdenNearshore RodsandI/Nysted Ronland ScrobySands Setana ArklowBank KentishFlats Barrow Beatrice(MorayFirth) Rostock BlueHPuglia(Pilot) BohaiBay BurboBank EgmondaanZee(NordzeeWind) InnerDowsing Lynn Hooksiel(Demonstration) KemiAjosPhaseI LillgrundOresund PrincessAmalia(Q7WP) AlphaVentus/BorkumWest Gasslingegrund(LakeVanern) GunfleetSandsPhaseI GunfleetSandsPhaseII HornsRevExpansion Hywind/Karmoy(FloatingPilot) KemiAjosPhaseII RhylFlats/ConstableBank RobinRigg(SolwayFirth) Sprogo ThorntonBank Avedore/Hvidovre BalticI BardOffshoreI GreaterGabbardPhaseI Nordergrunde RodsandII SeaBridge WalneyIslandPhaseI Belwind BorkumWestII Ormonde Thanet BorkumRiffgat LondonArrayPhaseI SheringhamShoal WalneyIslandPhaseII Country Denmark Netherlands Denmark Netherlands Sweden UnitedKingdom Denmark Sweden Denmark Denmark Sweden Denmark UnitedKingdom Germany Germany Denmark Denmark UnitedKingdom Japan Ireland UnitedKingdom UnitedKingdom UnitedKingdom Germany Italy China UnitedKingdom Netherlands UnitedKingdom UnitedKingdom Germany Finland Sweden Netherlands Germany Sweden UnitedKingdom UnitedKingdom Denmark Norway Finland UnitedKingdom UnitedKingdom Denmark Belgium Denmark Germany Germany UnitedKingdom Germany Denmark China UnitedKingdom Belgium Germany UnitedKingdom UnitedKingdom Germany UnitedKingdom UnitedKingdom UnitedKingdom Capacity (MW) 5 2 5 16.8 2.75 4 40 10 160 23 11.4 10.6 60 150 4.5 165.6 17.2 60 1.32 25 83 90 10 2.5 0.08 1.5 90 108 97.2 97.2 5 15 110 120 60 30 108 64 210 2.3 15 90 180 21 30 15 48.3 400 150 90 207 102 183.6 165 400 150 300 264 630 316.8 183.6 Operating Year 1991 1994 1995 1996 1997 2000 2001 2001 2002 2002 2002 2003 2003 2003 2004 2004 2004 2004 2004 2005 2005 2006 2006 2006 2007 2007 2007 2007 2007 2007 2008 2008 2008 2008 2009 2009 2009 2009 2009 2009 2009 2009 2009 2009 2009 2010 2010 2010 2010 2010 2010 2010 2010 2011 2011 2011 2011 2012 2012 2012 2012 Status Commissioned Commissioned Commissioned Commissioned Commissioned Commissioned Commissioned Commissioned Commissioned Commissioned Commissioned Commissioned Commissioned Commissioned Commissioned Commissioned Commissioned Commissioned Commissioned Commissioned Commissioned Commissioned Commissioned Commissioned Commissioned Commissioned Commissioned Commissioned Commissioned Commissioned Commissioned Commissioned Commissioned Commissioned Financed/UnderConstruction Financed/UnderConstruction Financed/UnderConstruction Financed/UnderConstruction Financed/UnderConstruction PartiallyCommissioned Financed/UnderConstruction PartiallyCommissioned Financed/UnderConstruction Financed/UnderConstruction Commissioned Financed/UnderConstruction Financed/UnderConstruction Financed/UnderConstruction Financed/UnderConstruction Financed/UnderConstruction Financed/UnderConstruction Financed/UnderConstruction Financed/UnderConstruction Financed/UnderConstruction Financed/UnderConstruction Financed/UnderConstruction Financed/UnderConstruction Financed/UnderConstruction Financed/UnderConstruction Financed/UnderConstruction Financed/UnderConstruction No. Turbines 11 4 10 28 5 2 20 5 80 10 8 2 1 1 30 50 1 72 8 30 2 7 30 30 2 1 1 1 25 36 27 27 1 5 48 60 6 6 10 30 18 91 1 5 25 60 7 6 3 21 80 140 18 90 34 51 55 80 30 100 44 175 88 51 TurbineSize (MW) 0.45 0.5 0.5 0.6 0.55 2 2 2 2 2.3 1.425 3 2.3 2.5 2 4.5 2.3 2 2 0.66 3.6 3 3 5 2.5 0.08 1.5 3.6 3 3.6 3.6 5 3 2.3 2 5 5 3 3.6 3.6 2.3 2.3 3 3.6 3 3 5 5 2.3 5 3.6 5 2.3 3 3.6 3 5 5 3 5 3.6 3.6 3.6 TurbineModel Siemens450 NEGMicon Vestas500kW Nordtank NEGMicon550kW VestasV66 Bonus2MW NEGMicon2MW VestasV80 Siemens2.3 Enron1.425 VestasV90 Bonus2.3 NordexN90 VestasV80 RepowerMM82 Enercon Siemens2.3 VestasV80 VestasV80 VestasV47 GE3.6 VestasV90 VestasV90 REpower5M Nordex2.5MW WES18mk1 Goldwind Siemens3.6 VestasV90 Siemens3.6 Siemens3.6 BARD5MW WindWinD3MW Siemens2.3 VestasV80 MultibridM5000 REpower5M (DynaWindAB) Siemens3.6 Siemens3.6 Siemens2.3 Siemens2.3 WindWinD3MW Siemens3.6 VestasV90 VestasV90 REpower5M N/A Siements2.3 BARD5MW Siemens3.6 REpower5M Siemens2.3 Sinovel3MW Siemens3.6 VestasV90 MultibridM5000 REpower5M VestasV90 N/A Siemens3.6 Siemens3.6 Siemens3.6 Water Depth(m) 3to5 5to10 3to5 5 6 9 5to10 8 6to14 11to18 7to10 1 5to12 20 3 6to10 1 2to10 13 2to5 5 15 43 2 108 N/A 10 17to23 10 10 2to8 N/A 2.5to9 19to24 30 4to10 2to15 2to15 9to17 120to700 N/A 8 >5 6to15 25 N/A 18 39to41 24to34 4to20 5to12 8to10 20 20to35 22to33 17to22 20to25 16to24 23 16to22 20 DistancefromShore (km) 1.5 1 6 0 3 1 2to3 5 14to17 3 8to12 1 8 17 0 6to10 0 3 1 10 9 7 25 1 20 70 5.2 8to12 5 5 1 0to1km 10 >23 45 4 7 7 30 10kminitially 0to1km 8 10 1 30 20to100 16 100 25 30 6to10 8to14 15 46 45 10 7to9 15 >20 17to23 15 FoundationType Gravity Monopile Gravity Monopile Monopile Monopile Gravity Monopile Monopile Monopile Monopile Monopile, Bucket Monopile Tripod N/A Gravity Monopile Monopile N/A Monopile Monopile Monopile Jacket N/A Floating Jacket Monopile Monopile Monopile Monopile Tripile ArtificialIsland Gravity Monopile Tripod Jacket N/A Monopile Monopile Monopile Floating N/A Monopile Monopile Gravity Gravity N/A N/A Tripile Monopile Monopileor Jacket Gravity N/A N/A Gravity Tripod Jacket Monopile N/A Monopile Monopile N/A