A STUDY DONE ON DIFFERENT TYPES OF DYEING PROCESSES AS DYEING AND PRINTING ASSIGNMENT 2

Submitted To: Mr. Manish Bharagav Submitted By: Abhishek Raj Ishita Singh Pragyadeep Gaurav Richa Jain Shrishti Gupta
National Institute Of Fashion Technology, Gandhinagar

Acknowledgement

Content

Introduction
Dyeing Process Dyeing is the process of imparting colors to a textile material through a dye (colour). Dyes are obtained from flowers, nuts, berries and other forms of vegetables and plants as well as from animal and mineral sources. These are known as natural dyes. The other class of dyes is known as synthetic dyes. These are based on a particular type of chemical composition. Some of these dyes are- Acid ( Anionic) dyes, Basic ( Cationic) dyes, NeutralPremetalized dyes, sulfur dyes, vat dyes, reactive dyes, pigment dyes etc. Dyeing Methods Colour is applied to fabric by different methods of dyeing for different types of fiber and at different stages of the textile production process. These methods include Direct dyeing; Stock dyeing; Top dyeing; Yarn dyeing; Piece dyeing; Solution pigmenting or dope dyeing; Garment dyeing etc. Of these Direct dyeing and Yarn Dyeing methods are the most popular ones. Direct Dyeing When a dye is applied directly to the fabric without the aid of an affixing agent, it is called direct dyeing. In this method the dyestuff is either fermented (for natural dye) or chemically reduced ( for synthetic vat and sulfur dyes) before being applied. The direct dyes, which are largely used for dyeing cotton, are water soluble and can be applied directly to the fiber from an aqueous solution. Most other classes of synthetic dye, other than vat and sulfur dyes, are also applied in this way. Yarn Dyeing When dyeing is done after the fiber has been spun into yarn, it is called Yarn dyeing. There are many forms of yarn dyeing- Skein (Hank) Dyeing, Package

Dyeing, Warp-beam Dyeing,and Space Dyeing. Skein (Hank) Dyeing The yarns are loosely arranged in skeins or hanks. These are then hung over a rung and immersed in a dyebath in a large container. In this method, the colour penetration is the best and the yarns retain a softer, loftier feel. Package Dyeing The yarns are wound on spools, cones or similar units and these packages of yarn are stacked on perforated rods in a rack and then immersed in a tank. In the tank, the dye is forced outward from the rods under pressure through the spools and then back to the packages towards the center to penetrate the entire yarn as thoroughly as possible. Warp-beam Dyeing It is similar to package dyeing but more economical. Here, yarn is wound on to a perforated warp beam, immersed in a tank and dyed under pressure. Space Dyeing In this method, the yarn is dyed at intervals along its length. For these two procedures- knit- deknit method and OPI Space-Dye Applicator- are adopted. In the first method, the yarn isknitted on either a circular or flat-bed knitting machine and the knitted cloth is then dyed and subsequently it is deknitted. Since the dye does not readily penetrate the areas of the yarn where it crosses itself, alternated dyed and undyed spaces appear. The OPI Space-Dye Applicator technique produces multi coloured space- dyed yarns. The yarns are dyed intermittently as they run at high speeds of upto 1000 yards (900 m) per minute through spaced dyebaths with continuous subjection to shock waves produced by compressed air assuming supersonic velocities.

1. Direct Dyeing
Batch Dyeing Processes Batch processes a r e t h e most common method used to dye textile materials. Batch dyeing is sometimes called exhaust dyeing because the dye is gradually trans- ferred from a relatively large volume dyebath to the material being dyed over a relatively long period of time. The dye is said to exhaust -from the dyebath to the substrate. Textile substrates can be dyed in batch processes in almost any stage of their assembly into a textile product including fiber, yarn, fabric or garment. Generally, flexibility in color selection is better and cost of dyeing is lower the closer dye application is to the end of t h e manu- facturing process for a textile product. Some batch dyeing machines operate a t temperatures only up to 1 OOC. Enclosure of t h e dye machine so t h a t it can be pressurized provides t h e capability to dye a t temperatures higher than 1OOC. Cot- ton, rayon, nylon, wool a n d some other fibers dye well a t temperatures of 1 OOC or lower. Polyester and some other synthetic fibers dye more easily a t temperatures higher than IOOC. T h e three general types of batch dyeing machines a r e those in which t h e fabric is circulated, those in which t h e dyebath is circulated while t h e material being dyed is stationary, and those in which both the bath a n d material a r e circulated. Fabrics and garments a r e commonly dyed in ma- chines in which the fabric is circulated. T h e formulation is in turn agitated by movement of the material being dyed. Fiber, yarn and fabric can all be dyed in machines which hold t h e material station- ary and circulate thedyebath. J e t dyeing is t h e best example of a machine t h a t circu- lates both t h e fabric a n d t h e dyebath. J e t dyemachines areexcellent for knit fabrics, but woven fabrics can also be dyed using j e t machines. T h e following a r e examples of some batch dyeing machines Becks Atmospheric becks can be used for dyeing a t temperatures up to 1OOC. Pressurized becks a r e used for dyeing a t temperatures higher than 1OOC. As shown in Fig. 1, adye beck consists of a reservoir or trough which contains the dyebath a n d a reel to move the loop of fabric through the dye formulation. T h e liquor to goods ratio used i n becks is typically 15:l o r higher although becks using ratios as low as 4:l

a r e available. T h e dye beck is sometimes called a winch because of the winch mechanism used to move t h e fabric. T h e ends of t h e fabric piece to bedyed aresewn together to make a continuous loop. T h e reel pulls t h e fabric out of the dye liquor in t h e trough a n d over an idler roll. After leaving t h e reel, the fabricslidesdown t h e back wall of the beck and gradually works its way from the back toward the front of t h e machine. Several loops of fabric of about t h e s ame length a r e dyed simultaneously. T h e individual loops a r e separated from one an- other by a dividing device called t h e peg rail extending the width of the machine. T h e peg rail contains smooth pegs spaced several

centimeters a p a r t to provide an opening through which the fabric ropecan pass. Loops of fabric a r e typically 50 t o 100 meters long depending on t h e weight of the fabric a n d other factors. T h e num- ber of loops processed depends on t h e size o f a particular machineand mayvary from only one loop in a laboratory or sample machine to 50 or more loops in a large production machine. T h e trough is slanted a t its rear to allow the fabric layers to slide down into the dye liquor and move gradually toward the front of the machine. A deep trough a n d steep sloping back works well for fabrics which do not crease easily while a shal- lower more gradual slope helps to prevent creasing. The idler roll presses some of t h e excess dye liquor from the fabric, improv- ing exchange of the liquid i n t h e fabric with formulation in the trough. Chemicals and dyes used in t h e dyeing a r e added to a compartment a t t h e front oft h e beck. The divider separating t h e compartment from the trough is perforated, allowing the added chemicals to gradually become mixed with the liquor in t h e trough. Live steam is injected into t h e compartment to heat the liquor to the required temperature. T h e injection of steam vigorouslyagitates thecompartment and aids i n mixing the dyes and chemicals into the dye liquor. T h e steam injected into the beck condenses in t h e liquor so some dilution of t h e d y e liquor must be tolerated. T h e greatest advantages of becks a r e simplicity, versatility and relatively low price. Becks subject fabrics to relatively low lengthwise tension and encourage the development of yarn crimp and fabric bulk. However, becks tend to use large amounts of water, chemicals and energy. Becks can cause abrasion, creasing and distortion of some fabrics. A continuous strand can bedyed instead of the usual multiple loops of fabric i f the beck has this capability. I n this system, a single long strand of fabric is gradually spiraled through the dye formulation from one side of t h e beck to t h e other. This method decreases t h e requirements for material handling, reduces waste and eliminates t h e necessity for trimming and sewing of individual loops. Jet Dyeing Jet dyeing machines resemble becks in t h a t a continuous loop of fabric is circulated through t h e machine. However, the cloth transport mechanism is dramatically different in these two types of machines. Fig. 2 shows a schematic diagram of a j e t machine. A high speed jet of dye liquid created by a venturi transports the fabric through the cloth guide tube of the j e t machine. A j e t machine has a cloth guide tube for each loop of fabric being pro- cessed. A powerful pump circulates t h e liquor through a heat exchanger outside of the main vessel and back into the j e t machine. T h e fabric travels a t high veloc- ityof 200-800 meters per minute while i t is i n the cloth guide tube. T h e fabric leaving the cloth guide tube enters a larger capacity cloth chamber and gradually advances back toward t h e cloth guide tube. Pressurizing a j e t dyeing machine provides for high temperature dyeing capability. High temperature j e t machines a r e especially suitable for delicate fabrics made of texturized polyester. S ome atmospheric machinesdesigned for dyeing temperatures up to lOOC also use t h e j e t circulation principle.

J e t dyeing machines provide the followi n g advantages compared t o atmospheric becks for dyeing fabrics made from texturized polyester. 0 Vigorous agitation of fabric a n d d y e formulation i n t h e cloth t u b e increases t h e dyeing r a t e a n d uniformity. 0 Rapid circulation of fabric through t h e machine minimizes creasing becauset h e fabric is not held in any one c o n f i g u r e tion very long. Lengthwise tension on t h e fabric is low so t h e fabricdevelops bulkand fullness of handle. Dyeing a t high temperature of about 130C gives rapid dyeing, improved dye utilization, improved fastness properties a n d makes possible the elimination of carriers required when dyeing a t lower temperatures. T h e lower liquor ratio used in j e t dyeing allows shorter dye cycles and saves chemicals and energy. S ome disadvantages of j e t dyeing machines compared to becks a r e as follows: 0 Capital and maintenance costs a r e higher. 0 Limited accessibility makes cleaning between dyeings a n d sampling for color during t h e dye cycle difficult. 0 T h e j e t action tends to make formulations foam in partially flooded j e t machines. 0 T h e j e t action may damage the surfaceof certain types of fabrics. J e t dyeing machinery evolved steadily after invention of the machine i n 1961. T h e first machines were partially flooded. Fully flooded machines keep the fabric completely submerged during the dye cycle. This prevents t h e formation of longitudinal creases which occur when t h e fabric is lifted from the bath i n a partially flooded machine. Fully flooding the ma- chinealso prevents formation of foam. T h e so-called soft Row machines use t h e s ame principle of a transport tube as a j e t machine where the fabric is transported in a s t r e am of dye liquor. However, transport of t h e fabric in soft flow j e t machines is assisted by a driven lifter reel. These machines either eliminate the high veloc- ity j e t or use a jet having lower velocity t h a n t h a t used on conventional j e t dye machines. T h e soft flow machines a r e more gentle on the fabric than conventional j e t machines. Jet machines offering Jigs As shown i n Fig. 3, a jig consists of a trough for the dye or chemical formulation. The fabric from a roll on one side of the machine is run through the formulation in the trough and wound on a roll on t h e opposite side of the jig. When the second roll is full, the drive is reversed, and t h e fabric is transfered through the formulation back to the first roll. Live steam injected into the bottom of t h e trough through a perforated pipe across the width of the jig heats the formulation. Closed coils containing high pressure steam can also be used to heat a jig. Live steam heats t h e formulation faster than closed coils but dilutes the formulation. Automatic devices control temperature a n d reverse the direction of the

fabric when required on modern jigs. A dye jig is normally used for dyeing a t pressure of one atmosphere although pressurized, high temperature jigs have been made. Covering t h e top of a jig minimizes heat loss to t h e atmosphere, keeps the temperature uniform on all parts of the fabric and minimizes exposure of the formulation to a i r . Minimizing exposure to air is most important when using sulfur a n d vat dyes since these dyes can be oxidized by atmospheric oxygen. Maximum batch size on a jig may be up to several thousand meters of fabric. Jigs exert considerable lengthwise tension on t h e fabric and are, therefore, more suit-able for woven than for knit fabrics. Since the fabric is handled in open width, a jig is very suitable for fabrics which crease i f dyed in rope form. Package Dyeing The term package dyeing usually refers to dyeing of yarn which has been wound on perforated cores so t h a t d y e liquor can be forced through t h e package. Packages may be tubes, cheeses or cones. Cores for dye packages may be rigid stainless steel, plastic or paper. Plastic a n d paper types a r e normally intended to be used only once while stainless steel cores can be reused indefinitely. Plastic and paper cores as well as stainless steel springs a r e used as compressible cores. These compressible cores allow more packages to be forced into the dye vessel and increase t h e capac- ityof t h e machine. As shown in Fig. 4, t h e yarn packages a r e placed on perforated spindles on a frame which fits into a pressure vessel where dyeing takes place. T h e dye vessel is cylindrical a n d has domed ends. T h e top cover, which must be removed for loading and unloading, is secured during dyeing by bolts or a sliding ring which c a n bequickly locked. Most package dyeing machines a r e capable of dyeing temperatures up to 135C. T h e number of packages may vary from as few as one in a laboratory machine to several hundred in a large production machine. T h e d y e formulation is pumped throught h e perforations in t h e spindles and pack- a g e cores into t h e yarn. T h e flow of liquid can be either from inside-to-outside of the package o r outside-in. Periodic reversal of t h e direction of flow improves uniformity of dyeing. A package dye machine has an expansion tank mounted alongside the dye vessel. T h e expansion tank accomodates t h e increased volume of dyebath resulting from thermal expansion when t h e bath is heated. Chemical a n d dye adds a r e made to t h e vessel through the expansion tank. A heat exchanger using high pressure steam a s the heat source heats the dye liquor i n a package dye machine. T h e s t e am coils for heating t h e liquor a r e also used a s cooling coils after the dye cycle is completed. Liquor ratio in a package dye machine is typically about 1 O : l when t h e machine is fully loaded. Use of lower liquor ratio can save water, energy and chemicals. T h e liquor ratio c a n be lowered by only partially flooding the machine. If the liquor covers all of t h e packages but does not fill t h e top dome of t h e machine, t h e liquor ratio is only slightly lower than it is i n a fully flooded machine. I f only t h e base of t h e c a r r i e r is covered withdyesolution, t he

liquor ratio may be a s low as 4: 1. However, t h e direction of liquor flow can only be inside-out using this arrangement. High quality dyeings may be more difficult to achieve a t very low liquor ratio in package dye machines. Raw stock, tow a n d other materials can be dyed using the same principles as package dyeing. A basket (cage) is nor-mally used to hold these materials during thedyeing. Beam Dyeing T h e principles of beam dyeing a r e essen- tially identical to those of package dyeing.Either yarn or fabric can be beam dyed. T h e fabric o r yarn is wound on a perforated beam. A beam machine can be designed to hold a single beam or multiple beams in a batch. Beam dyeing of warps is practical i n producing patterned fabrics where the warp yarn wi l l be one color and the filling will be another color. Skein Dyeing I n skein dyeing (also called hank dyeing), skeins of yarn a r e mounted on a carrier which has rods (sticks) a t the top and bottom to hold the skeins. T h e skeins a r e suspended in t h e dye machine and dye liquor is gently circulated around the hanging skeins. Perforated plates can be used a t t h e top and bottom of the machine to help provide uniform flow of t h e dye liquor. Alternatively, the dye liquor can be pumped through perforations i n the sticks so t h a t it cascades down over the hanging skeins. Skein dyeing produces good bulk in the yarn because of the low tension on the yarn in the dyebath. The method is used mainly for bulky yarns like acrylics and woolens for knitted oknitting. Woolen carpet yarn is sometimes skein dyed. Skein dyeing uses a high liquor ratio and a lot of energy. Uniform dyeing is difficult to achieve in a skein dyeing machine. Slow winding a n d backwinding requirements of the process make it labor intensive. Pack- a g e dyeing has replaced some skein dyeing even though t h e yarn bulkiness achieved inskein dyeing is usually not matched in package dyeing. Paddle Machines And Rotary Drums Paddle machines a n d rotary d r u m machines c a n be used to dye textiles in many forms, but these two methods a r e used mostly to dye garments. S t e a m injection directly into t h e dyebath heats both of these types of machines. S c h ema t i c diagrams of side paddle a n d overhead paddledye machines a r e shown in Figs. 5 a n d 6;Theside paddle machineisshown from t h e top since this gives the best view of t h e location of the parts of the machine. T h e paddle circulates the bath and garments around a perforated central island. Chemicals, water and steam for heat a r e added inside the perforated central island. T h e overhead paddle machine is simply a vat w i t h a paddle having blades the f u l l width of the machine. The blades dip a few centimcters into the vat tostir the bath and push the garments down, keeping them submerged i n t h e d y e liquor.

A rotary drum machine is a cylindrical vessel slightly larger than its internal perforated drum which holds the material to be dyed. T h e perforated drum is divided into several chambers each having its own door through which it can be loaded a n d unloaded. T h e drum rotates horizontally as shown in Fig. 7. Rotary drum machines arecommonly used to dye hosiery. Tumblers Tumblers a r e very similar in principle to r o t a r y d r um machines except t h a t they a r e usually larger. They also resemble large commercial drycleaning machines. Tumblers have a perforated drum which rotates inside a larger vat which contains the dye or chemical formulation. The d r um can be divided into compartments to assisti n agitating the garments, or baffles around the periphery of the drum serve to tumble the garments i n the dye formulation. These machines extract some of t h e water by centrifugal action after completion of the dyeing. Tumblers a r e used for (prewashing) garments dyed with indigo. Modern machines of this type a r e usually equipped with automatic controls a n d some a r e designed to tilt forward to provide for easy loading and unloading of batchesof garments. Continuous dyeing processes Continuous dyeing is most suitable for woven fabrics. Most continuous dye ranges a r e designed for dyeing blends of polyester and cotton. Nylon carpets a r e sometimes dyed i n continuous porcesses but the design of the range for continuous dyeing of carpet is much different than t h a t for flat fabrics. Warps can also be dyed in continuous processes. Examples of warp dyeing a r e slasher dyeing and long chain warp dyeing using indigo. Polyester/Cellulose Blends A continuous dye range is efficient a n d economical for dyeing long runs of a particular shade. Tolerances for color variation must be greater for continuous dyeing than batch dyeing because of t h e speed of the process and the large number of process variables t h a t can affect t h e dye application. The process as shown i n Fig. 8 is often designed for dyeing both t h epolyester a n d cotton in a blend fabric in o n e pass through the range. T h e polyester fibers a r e dyed i n t h e first stages of the range by a pad-dry-thermofix process. T he cellulosic fibers a r e dyed i n the latter stages of the range using a pad-steam process. Fabric previously prepared for dyeing enters t h e dye range from rolls. A scray is used to accumulate fabric entering the r a n g e s o t h a t the r a n g e c a n c o n t i n u e o tr u n whilea new roll of fabric is sewn to the end of the strand being r u n . Uniformity of application of dye requires that continuous dyeing b e d o n e in open width. Typical linespeed i n a continuous dyeing process is 50 to 150 meters per minute. Padding is a critical step i n continuous dyeing. Thedispersedye formulation (and sometimes the dyes for the cellulosic component) is applied i n the first padder. The fabric is immersed i n t h e dye formulation usually a t room temperature and squeezed to give a uniform add-on of dye formulation across the width a n d along t h e length of t h e fabric. Low temperature i n

t h e formulation in the padder minimizes tailing. Higher temperature promotes wetting of t h e fabric in the short time the fabric dwells in the pad formulation. T h e wet fabric leaving the padder enters a dryer to remove moisture and leave the dye uniformly deposited on t h e fabric. Radiant predrying using infrared energy inhibits migration of the dye. Drying is completed using steam-heated cylinders. A thermal treatment called thermosoling fixes the disperse dye on t h e polyester fibers. T h e thermosol oven heats the fabric to a temperature of 390-430C, t h e exact temperature depending on the particular dyes being applied. T h e d y e sublimes and diffuses into the polyester fibers during the thermosol treatment. T h e fabric dwells i n t h e thermosol oven for about one to two minutes. T h e cooling cans lower.the fabric temperature so t h a t it does not heat the solution in thechemical pad. Thechemical padder applies the dyes (and sometimes chemicals) for the cellulosic fibers. T h e s t e ame r heats t h e wet fabric so t h a t t h e d y e can diffuse into the cellulosic fibers. T h e fabric usually dwells i n t h e steamer for 30-60seconds. T h e washing section of t h e range is used for rinses, chemical treatments which may be required to complete the dyeing, and washing of the fabric to remove unfixed d y e a n d auxiliary chemicals used i n the dyeing. T h e dye and chemical formulations used i n the padders and washboxes depend on the particular classes of dye being applied. Continuous Dyeing of Carpet A continuous dye range for carpet consists of a dye applicator a n d steamer. T he process is designed for application of acid dyes to nylon. C a r p e t manufacturers a r e innovativein application o f d y e to produce special color effects on their product. As a result, many variations of dye applicators exist. A very high liquor r a t i o is normally required to produce good quality dyeing of carpet. As shown i n Fig. 9, a typical application method is to meter t h e dye solution onto t h e surface of t h e carpet. T h e stream of dye being metered o n t o the carpet can be momentarily interrupted to produce patterned effects. S t r e ams of different color dyes can be applied i n different patterns to produce special effects. Loop steamers a r e used in continuous carpet dyeing so t h a t t h e carpet always faces away from the guide rollers. As shown i n Fig. I O this festooning of the fabric prevents compression of t h e carpet pile by rollers in t h e steamer. Long Chain Dye Range W a r p y a r n s a r e o f t e n dyed with indigoand sulfur dyes using a long chain dye range. T h e process is used where t h e warp will be one color and t h e filling another color, a s i n denim fabrics. A s c h ema t i c d i a g r am of t h e process is shown in Fig. 1 1 . Ball warps (sometimes called logs because of their cylindrical shape) a r e prepared as supply packages for t h e long chain dye range. A ball warp is a warp in which several hundred warp yarns a r e condensed into arope a n d wound as a single strand into a ball (log). T h e yarn from each ball warp constitutes a continuous rope (chain). A long chain dye range accommodates multiple ropes or chains side-by-side so that thousandsofyarnsare beingdyed simultaneously. After exiting the long chain dye range, each rope is taken u p i n a separate container. After dyeing, each individual w a r p is backwound onto a warper beam

(section beam) and becomes a supply package for the slasher. Long chain dye ranges usually have a wet-out box to wet and partially scour t h e yarn before it enters the dye application section o f the range. The range contains a series of dye boxes which a r e designed to apply indigo. Indigo has low affinity for cellulose and must be applied i n several stages called dips. Each stage consists of immersing the yarn i n a solution of the reduced indigo, squeezing to remove excess solution, and skying to allow a i r to oxidize the dye and make it insoluble. T h e shade gets progressively darker a t each dip. T h e dye boxes a r e large and a circulation system involving all of the boxes is used to keep the indigo solution mixed well and prevent tailing of the shade. As u l f u r d y e c a n beappliedeither before the indigo, giving a sulfur bottom, or after t h e indigo to give a sulfur top. T h e use of a sulfur dye reduces t h e amo u n t of the more expensive indigo needed to produce the shade and may also modify the fastness properties as required for a particular use of the fabric.