BGS Earthquake Frequently Asked Questions

EARTHQUAKE QUESTIONS AND

ANSWERS

What is an earthquake?
An earthquake is the sudden release of strain energy in the Earth's crust
resulting in waves of shaking that radiate outwards from the earthquake
source. When stresses in the crust exceed the strength of the rock, it
breaks along lines of weakness, either a pre-existing or new fault plane.
The point where an earthquake starts is termed the focus or hypocentre
and may be many kilometres deep within the earth. The point at the
surface directly above the focus is called the earthquake epicentre.

Where do earthquakes occur?

Anywhere! However, they are unevenly distributed over the earth, with
the majority occurring at the boundaries of the major crustal plates.
These plate boundaries are of three types: destructive, where the plates
collide; constructive, where the plates move apart; and conservative plate
boundaries, like the San Andreas Fault, where the plates slide past each
other. Earthquakes also occur, less frequently, within the plates and far
from the plate boundaries, as in eastern USA, Australia and the United
Kingdom.

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 BGS Earthquake Frequently Asked Questions

Which countries have the largest and most

frequent earthquakes?
Around 75% of the world's seismic energy is released at the edge of the
Pacific, where the thinner Pacific plate is forced beneath thicker
continental crust along 'subduction zones'. This 40,000 km band of
seismicity stretches up the west coasts of South and Central America and
from the Northern USA to Alaska, the Aleutians, Japan, China, the
Philippines, Indonesia and Australasia.

Around 15% of the total seismic energy is released where the Eurasian
and African plates are colliding, forming a band of seismicity which
stretches from Burma, westwards to the Himalayas to the Caucasus and
the Mediterranean.

What is the biggest earthquake that has

ever happened?
One of the largest earthquakes ever was the Chile event of 22 May 1960
with moment magnitude of 9.5 Mw. Other large earthquakes include
Lisbon, 1 November 1755, magnitude 8.7 Ms; Assam, 12 June 1897,
magnitude 8.7 Ms; Alaska, 28 March 1964, moment magnitude 9.2 Mw.
Although the magnitude scale is open ended, the strength of the crustal
rocks prior to fracturing limits the upper magnitude of earthquakes.

How many global earthquakes occur each

year ?
NUMBER OF EARTHQUAKES PER YEAR MAGNITUDE 7.0 OR
GREATER

(1900-1989)

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YEAR NUMBER YEAR NUMBER YEAR NUMBER

1900 13 1930 13 1960 22
1901 14 1931 26 1961 18
1902 8 1932 13 1962 15
1903 10 1933 14 1963 20
1904 16 1934 22 1964 15
1905 26 1935 24 1965 22
1906 32 1936 21 1966 19
1907 27 1937 22 1967 16
1908 18 1938 26 1968 30
1909 32 1939 21 1969 27
1910 36 1940 23 1970 29
1911 24 1941 24 1971 23
1912 22 1942 27 1972 20
1913 23 1943 41 1973 16
1914 22 1944 31 1974 21
1915 18 1945 27 1975 21
1916 25 1946 35 1976 25
1917 21 1947 26 1977 16
1918 21 1948 28 1978 18
1919 14 1949 36 1979 15
1920 8 1950 39 1980 18
1921 11 1951 21 1981 14
1922 14 1952 17 1982 10
1923 23 1953 22 1983 15
1924 18 1954 17 1984 8
1925 17 1955 19 1985 15
1926 19 1956 15 1986 6
1927 20 1957 14 1987 11
1928 22 1958 10 1988 8
1929 19 1959 15 1989 7

Total 1900-1989 = 1822 events = 20 per year

Statistics were compiled from the Earthquake Data Base System of the
US Geological Survey, National Earthquake Information Centre, Golden

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CO, USA.

Do earthquakes occur in Britain?

YES, between 200 and 300 earthquakes are detected and located in the
UK, by the British Geological Survey annually. Although distant from the
nearest plate boundary, the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, earthquakes occur as
crustal stresses within the tectonic plates are relieved by movement
occurring on pre-existing fault planes. The risk from these earthquakes is
not insignificant and must be considered when engineering for sensitive
installations.

FREQUENCY OF OCCURRENCE OF MAINLAND UK EARTHQUAKES

(BASED ON OBSERVATIONS BETWEEN 1979 AND 1994)

Magnitude(ML) Average
5.0 and higher every 8 yrs
4 - 4.9 every 2 yrs
3 - 3.9 3/yr
2 - 2.9 26/yr
1 - 1.9 140/yr

FREQUENCY OF OCCURRENCE OF NORTH SEA EARTHQUAKES

(BASED ON OBSERVATIONS BETWEEN 1979 AND 1994)

Magnitude (ML) Average

4.0 and higher 1/yr
3.0 - 3.9 4/yr
2.0 - 2.9 25/yr

Why do we monitor UK earthquakes?

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The UK is a region of low seismicity, by global standards, and long-term

examination of both the instrumental and historical data is required for
seismic risk assessment. Statistical tables of the occurrence frequency are
produced, enabling more accurate calculations of seismic risk, that is, the
expected amount of damage which may occur in a given period of time.
This is a combination of seismic hazard, the level of ground motion which
is expected due to seismic activity, and seismic vulnerability, the amount
of damage experienced by a structure due to a given level of ground
motion. These factors are considered when engineering for sensitive
installations and appropriate precautions can then be taken to prevent
damage.

What is the biggest earthquake Britain has

ever had?
The North Sea earthquake of 7 June 1931, with a magnitude of 6.1ML
and with an epicentre offshore in the Dogger Bank area (120 km NE of
Great Yarmouth), is the largest known earthquake in the UK. The felt
area encompassed most of Britain, E of Ireland, the Netherlands,
Belgium, N France, parts of NW Germany, Denmark and SW Norway.
Damage in Britain was reported from 71 different places, with the
strongest effects at Filey, where the top of a church spire was rotated.
Bridlington, Beverley and Hull were also affected, with most of the
damage affecting chimneys and plaster. A factory roof is reported to have
collapsed at Staines (Surrey) and rocks or cliff collapse occurred at
Flamborough Head and Mundesley, Norfolk. The earthquake was reported
felt by a number of vessels in the North Sea and a woman in Hull died of
a heart attack, apparently as a result of the earthquake.

What are the largest two instrumental,

onshore earthquakes?
The 19 July 1984 Lleyn event of North Wales, with a magnitude of 5.4
ML, was the largest onshore earthquake this century in the UK and was
felt over an area of around 240,000 square kilometres. The earthquake
occurred in the lower crust at a depth of approximately 22 km and was
followed by many aftershocks. Detailed mapping of the aftershock
distribution highlighted a plane orientated WNW-ESE and dipping steeply

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NNE. This represents the fault plane and corresponds well with one of the
planes of the mainshock focal mechanism. There is, however, no surface
fault or feature which corresponds to this plane.

The maximum intensity in the epicentral area was 6 EMS (European

macroseismic scale) and damage consisted of widespread cracks in
plaster and falls of some chimneys and weak plaster. High intensities of 5
and 6 EMS reported from Liverpool appear to be due to the state of
repair of some of the buildings.

The 2 April 1990 Bishop's Castle earthquake in the Welsh Borders, with a
magnitude of 5.1 ML, was the second largest onshore earthquake in
recent years and was felt over an area of approximately 140,000 square
kilometres. It occurred at a depth of 14 km and the maximum intensity in
the epicentral area was 6 EMS. Damage was minor, including cracks and
fall of parts of chimney and plaster and was limited to the epicentral area,
north to Wrexham and especially Shrewsbury. Only six aftershocks
followed the mainshock, suggesting an almost total release of strain
energy following the mainshock.

What is the most damaging British

earthquake?
The Colchester earthquake of 1884, with a magnitude of 4.6 ML, was the
most damaging earthquake in the UK for several centuries. There was
considerable damage to churches, including the top of a spire falling,
falling masonry from roofs, falling turrets and parapets. The maximum
intensity in the epicentral area was 8 EMS. Damage to residential
properties included shattering of brick walls, and chimney falls, often
through roofs.

Is there any pattern to UK seismicity?

YES. Seismicity distribution for mainland and offshore UK is neither
random nor uniform in density, with more frequent and larger events
occurring on the west coast. In Scotland, most of this activity is
concentrated between Ullapool and Dunoon with centres near the Great
Glen and clusters of activity at Comrie. North Wales, especially around
Caernarvon and the Lleyn Peninsula, and the Welsh border area also

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show higher levels of seismicity. The NE of Scotland and the SE of

England are, in contrast, areas of low seismicity, although examination of
the historical record shows that NE Scotland, around Inverness, and SE
England were both active. Areas like Aberdeen and Caithness have,
however, always been quiet. Offshore, in the North Sea, there is a clear
correlation of epicentres with the major structures, the Viking and Central
grabens, the Norwegian coastal region and with the NE Atlantic passive
margin. The master basin-bounding faults are, therefore, currently active.
The stuctural highs in this region are, in contrast, relatively aseismic, for
example the West Shetland Platform and the Mid North Sea High.

What limits the depth of Earthquakes in

Britain?
Earthquakes occur in the crust where deformation is by brittle fracture.
Beyond a 'transition zone' earthquakes are no longer possible and plastic
deformation occurs. Onshore UK seismicity generally occurs within the
seismogenic zone, to mid-crustal depths. However, the activity on the
Lleyn Peninsula following the 1984 mainshock and subsequent aftershock
series occurred at depths of around 22 km in the lower crust. Other well
constrained deep activity has occurred in the Welsh Borders around
Newtown, suggesting a lowering of this brittle-ductile transition zone. In
contrast, shallower than average focal depths of around 6 km are
obtained for Cornwall where radiogenic granites are responsible for the
highest heat flow in the UK. Variation in the cut-off depth for crustal
seismicity is thought to be due to a combination of heat flow and
chemical/mineralogical differences (decreased quartz levels) in the crustal
rocks.

Can we identify the fault which triggered a

British earthquake?
In areas of high seismicity and dense monitoring, for example along the
San Andreas fault complex, major faults can be mapped at the surface
and often correlated with specific earthquakes. Occasionally major
earthquakes can occur on previously unknown 'blind' faults with no
surface representation, as with the 1994 Northridge earthquake. It is
more difficult, if not impossible, to identify the causative faults in areas of

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low seismicity. The length of the fault involved in generating small

magnitude events need only be of the order of a few hundred metres and
the faults generally show no related surface features. Location errors for
the calculated hypocentre also need to be considered. These vary
according to the magnitude of the event, and the station density. If the
earthquake occurred offshore or near the coast, there is an asymmetrical
distribution of the monitoring stations and correspondingly much greater
location errors.

Onshore, surface geological maps are highly detailed for the UK showing
an abundance of mapped faults. For a given epicentre, if surface fault
density is high and location errors are large, the error 'circle' can
encompass many possible causative faults. The causative fault may be
listric in nature, shallowing with depth, and extrapolation between the
focus at depth and any surface feature vertically above would not be
relevant. Deeper earthquakes in the mid-lower crust may occur on faults
that have no connection to the surface and, therefore, no related surface
feature.

Two of the main tools for obtaining further hypocentral parameters are
focal mechanism studies and spectral analysis. The former, involves
mapping the pattern of dilatations and compressional P-wave first arrivals
which plot in 4 quadrants, separated by a pair of focal planes, one of
which represents the fault plane. The focal mechanism provides
information on the type of fault movement and the local stress regime
operational. Spectral analysis of the recorded ground motion involves
plotting the spectral level against the frequency for the seismic wave
spectrum and provides an indication of the size of the radius of the
circular fault plane, the seismic moment and moment magnitude (Mw).

Have earthquakes caused deaths in

Britain?
YES. Eleven people are known to have died as the result of British
earthquakes. Six were killed by falling stones, two fell from upper floors,
two died of shock and one committed suicide. Details are summarised
below:

Number of deaths, Place,

Date Epicentre Magnitude
Cause

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6 Apr 1580 Dover Straits >6 2, London, falling masonry

15 Jul 1757 Penzance 4.5 1, Penryn, fell out window
2, near Edinburgh, falling
7 Sep 1801 Comrie 4.5
masonry
18 Sep 1833 Chichester 3 1, Cocking, falling rock
1, Wivenhoe, shock,
(uncertain)
22 Apr 1884 Colchester 4.5
1, Manningtree, suicide

1 Feb 1915 Conisbrough <3 1, Conisbrough, Falling rock

7 Jun 1931 North Sea 5.6 1, Hull, Shock?
12 Dec 1940 Porthmadog 4.7 1, Criccieth, Fell downstairs

Magnitudes are ML (Richter local magnitude); where estimated from

macroseismics, in some cases, they are only given as approximate values.

What is earthquake magnitude?

It is a measure of earthquake size and is determined from the logarithm
of the maximum displacement or amplitude of the earthquake signal as
seen on the seismogram, with a correction for the distance between the
focus and the seismometer. This is necessary as the closer the
seismometer is to the earthquake, the larger the amplitude on the
seismogram, irrespective of the size or magnitude of the event. Since the
measurement can be made from P, S or surface waves, several different
scales exist, all of which are logarithmic because of the large range of
earthquake energies (for example a magnitude 6 ML is 30 times larger, in
terms of energy than a magnitude 5 ML). The Richter local magnitude
(ML) is defined to be used for 'local' earthquakes up to 600 km away, and
is the magnitude scale used by BGS when locating UK earthquakes.

Surface wave magnitude (Ms) is based on the maximum amplitude of the

surface wave having a period of 20 + 2 s. It is used for observations near
the earthquake epicentre where the surface wave is larger than the body
wave. This scale applies to any epicentral distance or type of
seismograph.

Body wave magnitude (mb) is calculated from the body waves (P,PP,S)

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and are usually used at larger distance from the earthquake epicentre (P-
wave attenuation is less than surface waves, with distance). It can be
used for any earthquake of any depth.

Moment magnitude (Mw) is considered the best scale to use for larger
earthquakes as the Ms saturates at about magnitude 8. Moment
magnitude is measured over the broad range of frequencies present in
the earthquake wave spectrum rather than the single frequency sample
that the other magnitude scales use.

For comparison purposes, a magnitude 5 ML earthquake is equivalent to

the explosion of 1,000 tons of TNT whereas a magnitude 6 ML
earthquake is the energy equivalent of 30,000 tons of TNT or a 30
kilotonne nuclear explosion.

Why do we need more than one

earthquake magnitude scale?
The Richter magnitude scale (ML), described above is the best known
magnitude scale. Charles Richter developed it in the 1930s for use on
earthquakes in southern California, using high-frequency data from
nearby or 'local' stations. It is also the scale used by BGS to describe UK
earthquakes when using our network of 140 monitoring local stations.
Other magnitude scales include body-wave magnitude (mb), and surface
wave magnitude (Ms). One of these three scales is generally used,
depending on the frequency range and type of signal. Values for the
magnitude of a given event may, therefore, vary according to the
monitoring agency and preferred scale used. Although moment
magnitude (Mw) is considered the most reliable measure of earthquake
size, especially for the largest events, it is more difficult to routinely
calculate and requires analysis of the frequency spectra of the
earthquake.

What is the difference between magnitude

and intensity?
Magnitude is a measure of earthquake size and remains unchanged with
distance from the earthquake. Intensity, however, describes the degree

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of shaking caused by an earthquake at a given place and decreases with

distance from the earthquake epicentre. We can, therefore talk about a
magnitude 5.4 ML event with intensity of 6 EMS in the epicentral area, on
the Lleyn Peninsula, but intensity 3 EMS at Carlisle. Magnitude
measurement requires instrumental monitoring for its calculation,
however, assigning an intensity requires a sample of the felt responses of
the population. This is then graded according to the EMS intensity scale.
For example, Intensity 1, Not felt, 2, Scarcely perceptible, 3, weak, felt by
a few, up to 12 assigned for total devastation. Study of intensity and the
production of isoseismal maps, contouring areas of equal intensity, is
particularly important for the study of earthquakes which occurred prior
to instrumental monitoring.

Are earthquakes on the increase?

NO. There is no evidence that earthquakes are becoming more frequent,
we are simply recording larger numbers, especially of small earthquakes.
The number of larger events remains stable. As extensive world-wide
monitoring networks continue to expand, more events are located each
year. The table below details USGS data for the frequency of earthquakes
since 1900:

FREQUENCY OF OCCURRENCE OF EARTHQUAKES

BASED ON OBSERVATIONS SINCE 1900

Descriptor Magnitude Average Annually

Great 8 and higher 1
Major 7 - 7.9 18
Strong 6 - 6.9 120
Moderate 5 - 5.9 800
Light 4 - 4.9 6,200 (estimated)
Minor 3 - 3.9 49,000 (estimated)
Very Minor 2 - 3.0 about 1,000 per day
Very Minor 1-2 about 8,000 per day

Can earthquakes be predicted?

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Although it is known that most global earthquakes will concentrate at the

plate boundaries, there is no reliable method of accurately predicting the
time, place and magnitude of an earthquake. Most current research is
concerned with minimising the risk associated with earthquakes, by
assessing the combination of seismic hazard and the vulnerability of a
given area. Many seismic countries, however, have research programs
based on identifying possible precursors to major earthquakes. This
includes the study of dilatancy, how rocks crack and expand under the
increased stress associated with the earthquake. Some major
earthquakes, but not all, are heralded by the occurrence of foreshocks.
which can be detected by dense local monitoring networks. Other
instruments can measure changes in the levels of radon gas, electrical
and magnetic properties, velocity changes of seismic waves and changes
in topography. Long term monitoring and examination by these sensors is
required as some or all of these factors may change due to the opening
of cracks prior to the earthquake.

All attempts to predict earthquakes have, however, been generally

considered as failures and it is unlikely that accurate prediction will occur
in the near future. Efforts will, instead, be channelled into hazard
mitigation. Earthquakes are difficult or impossible to predict because of
their inherent random element and their near-chaotic behaviour

Common Terms Used in Seismology (the

study of earthquakes).
Aftershock An earthquake which follows a larger earthquake or
main shock and originates at or near the focus of the
larger earthquake. Generally, major earthquakes are
followed by a larger number of aftershocks,
decreasing in frequency with time.
Amplitude The maximum height of a wave crest or depth of a
trough.
Array An ordered arrangement of seismometers or
geophones, the data from which feeds into a central
receiver.
Arrival The appearance of a seismic wave on the seismic
record.
Arrival time The time at which a particular wave phase arrives at
a detector.
Aseismic area An area that is almost free of earthquakes.
Body wave A seismic wave that travels through the interior of the
earth and is not related to a boundary surface.

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Crust The outer layer of the Earth's surface.

Earthquake Shaking of the earth caused by a sudden movement
of rock beneath its surface.
Earthquake swarm A series of minor earthquakes, none of which may be
identified as the main shock, occurring in a limited
area and time.
Elastic wave Rock is an elastic material that when strained by
normal external forces can return to its original state.
When the strength of the rock is exceeded, the rock
ruptures, generating elastic seismic or earthquake
waves.
Epicentre That point on the Earth's surface directly above the
hypocentre of an earthquake.
Fault A weak area in the Earth's crust where two sides of a
fracture or fracture zone move relative to each other.
First arrival The first recorded signal on a seismogram is the
direction of the first P-wave, where upward ground
motion is compressional and downward motion is
dilatational.
Focus The point where earthquake rupture or fault
movement originates.
Foreshock A small earthquake that may precede a larger
earthquake or main shock and that originates at or
near the focus of the larger event.
Frequency The frequency of a wave (Hz) is the number of wave
cycles per second.
Hypocentre The calculated location of the focus of an earthquake.
Induced seismicity Non-natural events induced by man's activity. These
include mining induced events, events caused by
loading of dams or pumping of water in geothermal
areas.
Intensity A measure of the effects of an earthquake at a
particular place on humans and (or) structures. The
intensity at a point depends not only upon the
strength of the earthquake (magnitude) but also
upon the distance from the earthquake to the
epicentre and the local geology at that point.
Isoseismal line A line enclosing points on the Earth's surface at which
earthquake intensity is the same. It is usually elliptical
in shape
Love wave A major type of surface wave having a horizontal
motion that is shear or transverse to the direction of
propagation. It is named after A.E.H. Love, the
English mathematician who discovered it.

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Magnitude A measure of the strength of an earthquake. There

are several scales depending on which part of the
seismogram is examined. These include Richter local
magnitude (ML), Body wave magnitude (mb) and
surface wave magnitude (Ms). Moment magnitude
(Mw) is calculated from spectral analysis.
Mantle The layer that lies between the crust and the core of
the earth.
Microseism A motion in the Earth that is unrelated to an
earthquake. It is caused by a variety of natural and
artificial agents, for example wave action, wind,
traffic and industrial noise.
MSK MSK intensity is the intensity scale used in Europe
before the introduction of the EMS scale. It is a 12-
grade scale ranging from not felt to complete
devastation.
P wave The first and faster of the body waves which moves
by a series of compressions, similar to a sound wave.
They can travel through both solid and liquid.
Phase The onset of a displacement on a seismogram
indicating the arrival of the different types of seismic
wave.
Plate One of the segments which make up the Earth's
crust. The plates are continuously moving relative to
each other.
Plate boundary The place where two or more plates in the Earth's
crust meet.
Prediction Predicting the time, place and magnitude of an
earthquake.
Rayleigh wave A type of surface wave having a retrograde, elliptical
motion at the free surface. It is named after Lord
Rayleigh, the English physicist who predicted its
existence.
Reflected wave A wave that has turned back from a boundary or
discontinuity in the earth's crust.
Refraction The change in direction of a wave on reaching a
boundary of different density and velocity.
Richter scale A popular name for the local magnitude scale (See
Magnitude).
S wave The second arrival on a seismogram, the S wave, is
slower than the P-wave. It is a shear wave and
cannot travel through liquids.

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Seismogram A record of an earthquake or ground vibration. The

wave trace is made up of P-waves, S-waves and
surface waves, the pattern of onsets of the first two
arrivals help to determine the location. The
seismogram can be either a paper record or a digital
record that is analysed by computer.
Seismograph An instrument that registers the occurrence of an
earthquake and the time it occurred as a written
record.
Seismologist A scientist who studies earthquakes.
Seismometer An instrument that not only measures the time of the
arrival of earthquake waves, but also allows the exact
motion of the ground to be computed from the
record.
Seismoscope An instrument that registers the occurrence of an
earthquake, but not the time.
Signal-to-noise The comparison between the amplitude of the seismic
ratio signal and the amplitude of noise caused by seismic
unrest and (or) the seismic instruments.
Subduction zone An elongated region along which a crustal plate
descends relative to another crustal block, for
example, the descent of the Pacific plate beneath the
South American plate.
Surface waves Seismic waves with motion restricted to near the
ground surface (Love and Rayleigh)
Teleseism An earthquake that is distant from the recording
station.
Travel time The time required for a wave train to travel from its
source to a point of observation.
Tsunamis A huge sea wave caused by earthquakes. (Referred
to by many as a tidal wave.)
Volcanic Earthquakes associated with volcanic activity.
earthquake
Wavelength The distance between two successive crests or
troughs of a wave.

(Edited from www.gsrg.nmh.ac.uk/~phoh/faq1.htm)

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