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;;;1.;;;**..re. in mosrcases gap,-rhe j;"-,:Y grearerare the difficutties mer in materrar prepararion. ll".:*rgy I Dlsrs o'en because materials the havehigh ,neltingt.,.,p"*tures and low structural stability. Table4.i listsd numberof re.levant properries several of elemental una Uinrf *ri_ conductors. There. are no suitableelemenial *",la."Or.r"r, ^ they all ha/e indirect energygaps. Diamond, ,n" on]l-"-,ra"r.l,wirh a large enoughenergygap to ehabl ro take ptace,is.toointre*abte anit mareriat. ::rjb]:_"lt:* Both siticcn anogermanrum be readilyfabricated "ip.nriuia can into diodes(h"n." trr.i. or,ri"nJil ,;:;;r.; ";;;iarive bur they have y-ur-eiltearonig 3omponents), efficiencies, and In any casewould emit in the infrared "_..;;t;_" spectral region. S i l i c o n a r b i d es a p r o m i s i n e r a r e r i ab,u t c i n r i t s h i " g h e r t i n g o i n ra n d m p t h ec o n s e . u e , t growth difficulties privented iis carly use in LEDs. tr .rn i. doped as borh rr and p type' and commercially availableblue emittingrjiodesof sic iru. Decome avairable recently. Doping with B, Al, Sc givesrise ro y"f fur".'fr]*, greenand red emislclBe Unforrunatety, is ai indirecth"".fgrp rnr,".,r, SiC ,nd radiative llll i:rt*.ttdt. tran_

ujriOf greater i;"i r;';;;; 2evare rhan required. ,r;;*;;;;;:,;:t;1il,l;i ,i,iiirlLti ". Iargegapsrendro havehigh resistivities euen*hen

LED material follows:first, as it must have energy of appropriat, an gap *[,i,'r"l""iilbotrr p anon types must exrst' preferabry rowresistiriities; finary, with and etncieni"uaiutiu" putr,*iys nrust . present. be Fquation (4.5) indicates that, in ordcr to,,t,tniu

We may summaiize nrainr_eguirements the for a suitablc

wherethe electrons injectedfr.m the,a* are ..gin, inl,, il. i're-ei'n. Hcre ihey can cornbine radiatively with holes"r,ir zinc occcprorri Vntt,,-*"rntb"r*""u i and l0 V arc r e q u r r e d n dm a x i m u m l l o w e d u t . r c n t0 r c o n l v a a c f o l l h c o | c l c r f i 0 m A . b r i { h l n e s ss o j agarn rclatively low. At present. llnrltpcct:i bluc Lt-_l):; thc {irl rvithhigh bri.qhtncsses arc ralher Door.

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directlybetweenstatesat the bottom of the conducrionhand !nd ar rhc ton of rhe valeoce,ban{"dbeathe emissionwavelengthl.* is given by (src cq. (4.t)): hc ri dirxlc rrd b!as, 'rier and 'rierand rationis ay from we may listance E,- E"= EE

Fbr example, GaAs has an energybandgap of L43 eV. which corresrlonds a value to for l, of 0.86 pm. In fact, because thermalexcitation,electrons the conducti.n of in bandhavea most probableenergyrvhich kr/2 abovethe bortomof the conciucti.n .is band(seeProblem2.20)-Band-to-band rransi(ions rhcrc[(ircrcsurr a srighrry in sh.rter emission wavelength thah givenby eq. (4.5).and scrf-ubsrrrpri,rn turthcr distortthc can situation. However,as we shall seelater,mosttransitioas involveencrgylcvclswithin theen-ergy and for these (4.5)represcnts sh()rrcr gap, eq. the wavclength lirnit.We now consider transmission thc proccss ntoretlctail. in 4-5.1 Radiatioe recombination procassts Radiative recombination semiconducrors in occurspredon)inrntlv thrcc differe'nt. via processes; namely(i) interbandlransitions, recornbination impuritvccnt!rsan<j (2) via (3) excitonrecombination. 4.6.1. INTERBAND I TRANSITIoNS This recombinatioq process illustrated is schernaticallv rn c'crgv lc'cl diatrirflfrrr on b o t hd i r e c t n d i n d i r e c t a n d g a p a t c r i a l is F i g s .4 I 3 ( a )i r n c( b ) r e s p c c r i v e l(vf_, l i a m b n i d i a g r a mfso r s i i i c o na n d g a i i i u ma r s e n i d e r e s h o r v n n F i g 2 . 6 . ) I I i s i m p o r l a n tl o a i r e a l i z e h a t t h e t r a n s i t i o n u i t c o n s c r t ct h c t o t a l w a v c r c c t o r o f t h c s v s t c r r l .h e t m photonwave vectoris givcn by 2;r/i: whilstthc clcclron $.irvcvcctorsinvolvcdrallc

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W see that in this caser. may be reducedby reducing r und increasingJ. However, sincethe Iifeiimeis now currentdependent, approach leadto signaldistortion. this can

o:be this

':'4:t$ LED,fuircrircu itry

As we ha*e seen,the electrical charactristics LEDs are essentially of those of ordinary rectifying diodes. Typical operating curents are between 20 mA and /00 mA, whilst vary frbm 1.2V for GaAs to 2 V for GaP.(The orierating the forwardvoltages voltage k approxirnately equal to the built-indiodepotential,whichin turn is slighrlylessrhan the energy gap expressed eV.) Simple drive.circuits for d.c. and a.c. vnltage operain tion are shown in Figs. 4.19(a) and (b) respectively.The cuirent thrcugh the dioile is limited by a seriesresistance whosevalue may be cal_culated R" froni

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and(b) a.c.operation in both rl.t9 SimpleLED drive circuils (a) d.c. operation fot a scriesresistorn. limits the maxinum cutrcnt Ilow. ln the l.c circuit a diode is reverse the polarily across LED to prevenldamit{efrom cxccssive with reversed
( c ) s h o w st h e I i g h t o u t p u t o b t l i n c d w i l h t h c c i r c u i to f ( b ) .

esc

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rvhereyh is the power sourcevoltage, yd the diode operating voltagi and d the desired diodecurreirt.ll the a.c. circuit.a rectifying diode is placedacross LED to protect the it againstrevegsrJ breakdown. bids Thesetwo iilcuits provide for continuous.on'operation. Ifit is desired.toswitch the diode on or off, or to modulate the output, then the circuits shownin Figs. 4.20(a) and (b) respectively may be used. In Fig. 4.20(a) the transisroris usedas a simple switch.

with

the collect basevoltag( biased,the r a substantia transistoris both the tra curren{ flo\4 voltage.

,, :.,,,4't7.;Flasm

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1980.

Lasers I

The word 'laser' is an acronym for'Light Amplification by Stinlulated Emission of Radiation'. Albert Einstein in 1917 showed that the processof stimulated emission must exist but it wis iiot until 1960that T. H. Maiman (ref. 5.1) first achieved laser . ..a;rn a-Urtical frequencies ruby. The basicprinciplesand constructiori ofa laserarc in re-latively straightforwardand it is somewhatsurprisingthat the invention of the laser was so long delayed.A rigorous analysisof the physicsof the laser, on the other hand, is quite difficult and the treatment we give below is somewhatsimplified.The development of laserssiirce1960has been extremely rapid and althoughapplications,for ldsrirs had a very slow start during their first decade, new applicationsfor laser radiation are being found now almost every day (see section 6.5). In view of the increaseduse of lasersand as laser radiation is potentialy hazardous,some commentson laser safetv havebeenincludedas Appendix 7.

t"
5.1 Emissionand absorptionofradiation
It was seen in Chapter 2 that when an electron in an atom undergoestransitions be,-. tween two energy statesor levels it either emits or absorbsa photon, which can be describedin terms of a wave of frequency v where v = LElh, LE being the energ)' difference between the two levels concerned. Let us considerthe electron transitions atomic system which may occur betweenthe lwo energy levelsof the hypothetical is ofphotons shownin Fig. 5.1. Ifthe electron in the lower level.Erthenin the Presence - E) it may be excited to the upper level E2 by absorbing a Photon. of energy (E" Alternatively if the electron is in the level E2it may return to the ground statewith the process may occurin two distinctways.. Theseare: of emission a photon.The emission in emissionprocess which lhe electrondropslo the lolqr level in an (a) thespontaneous is entirely random way and (b) tl\e stimulated emtrsionprocessin which the-e-le.ctron 'triggered' undergothe transitionby the presence photonsof energy(Eut>Er). of to socne{or this process Thereis nothingmysticalin this, as the electronwould undergo of is transition simplyinitiatedby the presence the stimulat\ laterspontaneously: the t\ pboton. are illustratedin Figs. 5.2(a), (b) and (c) The absorptionand emission Processes

156 Lasers I
PopulationN, Er''ergy E2

,ly'r Population EnergyEl

interval Becausethe emitted bY I stimulated ( with the stll 5.7), are in This means it passes th 'Process: As occur in th stimulated i a.oother.

I }l,

Final state

t,.

: ' s:2:'Einste
,'.' '..,ffieiq,(re , related thro upward trar frocesses (f If there a ward traril ''.-"r Photons is given bY ' iluericY v. T ' constant. Si E2 then the ' a constant' total down\ tions, i.e' NzQ"

"@
I I I I . l I I

Sponttnoout cmbsio4

(b)

-.-----I I emissio!l

A21, 821 an(

b establish For a sYst and hencer

NrQ'

(c)

.:4

and emission (a) iltustratingleveldiagram Fie. 5.2 Energy "9:"tp-tl:":J-bl^tfntaneousandafterthe of theatombefore ri" iiuf* aot iniicaiesthe state i"irt,t"i"iJ?trt'ion transition. the stidutated processbecausethe we Under normal circumstances do not observe processoccurringis much higher'-The averagetime the probabilily of the spontaneous transition is called the in the excited state before making a spontaneous !l".tron "ii.t. the excitd .,u,". Th" '21' hdre indicates the energy levels involved' lifetime x2r .of emi$ion within a time y ,ftat a particular atom will uirdergqspontaneous it ":p..trfifi

thus

e*'

!._--

tein relations

I57

.: .F.,GFcle'rncrdlDrfaneous # f H: 21'

,,ffi*3*g:ly*::11.T..""r

r"".""C''i"* orten rererred :,ffi,jljYl"':::f S3.1"131_11.ne"n .:JTff"';"'lJff toas ir,..# ;:':llg".absorption.rhesetwop,;;;;';;;;'ffi

relations f*mAn F{52) showed theparameters that describing above the thre"Oro"".r".ur. relatedthroughthe requirementrha, r", .y"".r'ir',iJrir"i"urr.r"m the rate of upward transitions " (fromE1 to E2)must rran.ition processes (from E, ro Ej. "dJi;Jr;,;;1'h!'do*n*".d

iir*i"ii, Le"rty amplificarion process. the absorptiontransitior,\ As "r""", in _rn_on. *uiif, Jr*nulatedemission, "n can onlv

it passes through cotection exciged"*prilri"-"r.#l"o"o, a o.f.

i;#;T ;::lT":::.,Jffi.::.H?f: 5'7), arein phase, havethe same stateof poradza;;-;;i oJo io ,t ."o,e direction. This means withstimurated that eniissr." " irr; *ru"
r. ""n *ro.,.

the cohgrent radiatibn sincethe *uu". urSoJ"iJ wirh stimuratine withthesrim,,lqri." -.,*.lij11jri" the ;, *a .ti'nurat"i,pr,"tonffi

:!'^,:,,!!:-1, radiation f1o1 any atom is ernittej ";; at random, the fadiation

where'42 thespontaneous,." 1is

torhis, :d;;G il;*lit. rncontrast

;."T:.T:"*"rO

aconstant.rhespontaneousr,,;':,1{tiJ",l.,,l"',,""li'J,li,|i!ii: mfa: ,ransirion rate,,is ,r_ or ,rl"jrl"-""i inl'rpon,"r"ous the

contribu_
N2e'B2t + N2A2l

r"it'rvrr"a tothenumber :;rl.d^:.l1ri,i:i at the :. oi pnotons available. correct.frequ"o"y. p* N;o* ,fr" A"o.iryat frequency is given p, : -thv where v, by "i"rgy -,r ,ir" nrn,u", vorume havins quency Therefore may .i,th" up"n"raot=i;;;;;:"il,, frev, we write t.#iti-oi;H:;rQJ; ;;;:",; constant. Similarly there ir', atoms ,"ffJ.f"." if are per f, ,f* , withenergy E2thentheinducJai*"r,.ir".",3i.#]I;,;':::::11e-rnlhecollection

If thereare1Vr uiorn.o!, unit volumeil the collection with El,thenthe up, absorprion willbeproportionaii" endrgy rare

,n"u,*, ein coeficiens;the rerarionships them between can theupward downward and rransirionrares beequal musr ,":ffi:t"t"l;:#uilibrium, #:,im1f::1:;Tr:o
rd
le

iy'1p,8,, = N2p,B21 *

N2A21

thus
N.A^. e"=pp;fri,,6"

(s.1)

"

4,,/R",

a,,N,
D ^r

(s.2)

Lasers I

Now, the populationsof the various energy levels of a systemin thermal equilibrium are give by Boltzmann statisticsto be:

Exampl [.et us c of 2000

., "r

&Ns exp(- E1/kT) 2giexp (-E!kT)

(s.3)

whele 1r'7 the population density of the energy level E;, Ne is rhe toral population is density and g; is the degeneracyof the lth level.t Hence
,N.

I
l, r'

ff

= *o (82- Ety = exn kr) kD o" fr @t

eq.'(52) gives

' (s.4)

This con not an ir freguen<

,,.

,&
(5.6)

Theabor the process beam of lig relation to I this for a gi - the pop._,.t; 'the lower l( condition in population I look more c

(s.7)
and.

5.3 Absorl Lot usconsir

sectional afe thereis only E1 andE2.T by aI(x)

R : It is left as a problemfor the readerto shqwthat . R:exi(hylkT)-1,

For a homogt !o (.r). " t absorptioi'cc due to absorl equation I we

r In general, probability the of occuparion arrrhc available of srates energy or revers not the same. is The jn rhe 8r ol occupalion is ofrencalted degeneracy). Frequentty, ralio grlg? rhe :1"-:"):".1"tor exampte, o[ the _(g eqn.{J.)), ifT:TlIy ts orderof unityandhence oftenomilted. is

Integrating rh.

* itp.op"gut"s ;"JJ,fl:iffi:'A*:'Jfi ;;: I ;,;'1,;; ;? ;:tffil d;" ;^' ;;,1, -- -Y-q I = Is exp
(kx) where & is referred to as the small sionot oai. ^^-cc^:_ , totncoeficient . .

tu,h; ;;;;;;;il;

ega and :d.Ti ;::: Y/tl1.'n"i isn rive ;h;;;; ;ilili]

(s.14) (5.t5)

-k

= (N,- & ru.)o^.ourllln"rno' '\ 8t-'/-'' c

and given is bv

5.4. Populafion inversion

inversion cqnditionrequiredfor light lhe-population amplificarior a n trn-equilibrirrm ti dlslrlbution atomsamongthe of variou"or,"."" levels ,^i-,^l-flll''i""1 energv of

clearlyas '87increases decreases ly'; for

u"o_i.;rru,t.ut.i'iffi:';".1;";{.,: ii"r"T,!:1,",.1ff:i;,:1H,iir;"?_rij{q3 a ionstant ,.rpi1""."1 *" note that

if rhe

mann oistriuuiioriffiffi;,;::

.":lto.us.

theatomrc system. IJottzThe

162 Lasers I

(b).

Fig.5.4 Populations a tivolevelenergy of (a) systbm: in thermal equilibrium (b) and aftera populatiori inverionhasbeen produced. between and E2 werenearlyequal fo.kT e0:025 iV.at room E1 1 eneigydifference . i tbrhperature) the population the upperlevelwouldbe l/e:or then of 0.37of that of the, : lower level.For an energy difference largeenoUgh givevisibleradiation to (-2.0 eV), however, population the upperlevelis almostnegligible.ns the of Exainple ihowa. 5.2

which one I Now as 812 level the pt evenwith v considered .. As a con, . systems; th number of The thre .' ' . '.'F'i;5.5. Ini "" : inrensdy ill '- r',. r , i 4 l n g r o u n dr , a " r.,t,E:i:.ard pc tion from l vacant stat metasnble s Drobabilitv greal \thar .

The levei that punrpir Possible, thr

Example 5.2 Relativepopulationsof eneigr levels We mayrstimfne.rteielative populationsof two energyjevels suchthat.a transi. tion from the higher to the lower will give visible radiation. Let xs take the.average wavelengthof visibleradiation as550nm, then E2 _ E1 = hc/(550x l0-e) = 3.6 x l0-re J = Z.Z5 ey. Assuming room temperature (I = 300 K) aiid that gt = g2 we have from eq. (s.4) N.

,t

= t"o

-3.6 x l0- r'r

l3s i' 10:#;16

- e-tr7 lo-r7 =

Clearlythen.-ifwe are ro creare a.population inversion, illustrated Fig. 5.4(b),we in must supply a large amount of energy to excite atomi into the upper tbvet fr.'nris excitationprocess c4lledp umping aadmuch of the technologyof lasersis is concerned wilh how the pumping energy can be supplied to a given lase; system.pumping produces.a nonthermal equilibriumsituation; shallnow consider general we in te.mi iro* pumpingenables populationinversion be achieved. a to

Fig. 5 distril invoh

I
I l : i '

Popdlrtion'inarr$nn

163

(b)

)m
he, /),

^lq

i.e. absorption, the energylevels usedfor pumpingis stimulated one of the methods 'Which of irradiation the system. by actionarepunipeo intense to onehqires usefor laser = g2).onceatoms ei:cite'linto the upper are NowasBrzand82r areequal(asiuminggi of further stimulateddbxirption or emissi{rnare equal so that levEl the probabjlities evenwith very intensepumpingthe bestthit cantre achievd v/ith the.twolevel systerh, of hitherto,is equalityo*fthe Populations the two levels' considered . with eitherthreeor four energylevel we As a consequence mustlook for materials generally have a large as this is not really a disadvantage atomic systems systems; levels. . numberof energy ref' by first.proposed Bloembergen, 5'3' is illustratedin The three levcl system of law.If thecollection atomsis the Boltzmann obeys Fig. 5.5.Initiallythe distribution (i.e. pumped) into the level E2from can incs"tv illsiuted the electrons be excited to decay non-radiative by rftgo;*.5lzt lEo.FromEr.theelectrons Processes the levei Ideally,the tfansiE, between andE6. may be created inversion a E1a-lid population thAtthere are alu'ays from leiel Eztg E1 shouldbq very rapid, therebygnsuring tion whilethat from E1 to Eo shouldbe veryslow,i'e' E1 shouldbe a states E2, at vacant in in large,build-up the numberof atoms levelEr, asthe This metastables!,ate. allows.a 'probability is relativelysmall' EventuallyN1 may become emission of spontaneous will havebeenachieved' inversion greater thair'Nsand thenpopulation levelsso spaced of consist a largenumberof closely The levelEz shouldpreferably that pumpingusesas wide a part of the spectralrangeof the pumpingradiationas Even so, three level lasers,tbr the possi|le,ihereby increasing pumpingefficiency.

te

is
:d

(a) by of Fis.5.5 Population the eneigylevels pumpingin a threelevelsyste'n: Boltzmann pumping and (b) distribution after pumping and the transitions diitrib'tion before involved.

164 Lasrs I

r:ry' requirevery high pumppowersbecause the terminallevelof the laser -exam.4e transition the ground is state.This meanithat rarir". -ore trr"nrru,, of thegroundstate atoms(this numberis usuatv very nearlyequal to the tohl;umber of atomsin the collection) have*tobe puap"a to ,5 .;;l;;;';,oopuration inversion. The four levetsystem shownin rig."ry:l;"" ,n;l;;;;fic 5.0 has jf ';;"i;;'", ,;;;;;;;. (Er - Ei is rather larseco-.,ared_t-o tf t,i. if,"r-rf rhe remperarure of operation), then the po;ularionsof the 1"""i;-;,, ;;;;; ir"ur?u,, u"o r*alr in condi_ tionsof rhermar equiribrium. Thus,if atomsur" pr-p"a-tiJr-the ground stateto the level -Qrfroin which thbv decavvery rapidly to ,f," ,n",uriuUi"," vel E2, apopulation ---.--'-' inversion quicklycreaiedbeiween is levelsE, unaZr.

j}.f:'i*

j?n:l:,:"E-.

should prefeaory,,onsist or.e,tqe.fficr

i'f tevets:for

Fig. the e
J.5

The laser, electronic positivp

frequency.. to the however,
larqer c

fiB

ilii;:r;:t-|ffi"

or theenersv levels a fourlevelsvstem: in (a)

before pumping and

a pair of initial Ievelsin amplified

reached during a