12.

1 A sequence is
(a) an ordered list of objects.



(b) A function whose domain is a set of integers.

Domain: 1, 2, 3, 4, ,n

Range a
1,
a
2,
a
3,
a
4,
a
n



1 1 1 1
1, , , , ...
2 4 8 16
{(1, 1), (2, ), (3, ), (4, 1/8) .}
Finding patterns
Describe a pattern for each sequence. Write
a formula for the nth term
1 1 1 1
1, , , , ...
2 4 8 16
1 1 1 1
1, , , , ...
2 6 24 120
1 4 9 16 25
, , , , ...
4 9 16 25 36
1
1
2
n
1
! n
2
2
( 1)
n
n +
Write the first 5 terms for
1 2 3 4 1
0, , , , ... ...
2 3 4 5
n
n

The terms in this sequence get closer and closer

to 1. The sequence CONVERGES to 1.
On a number line
As a function
1
n
n
a
n

=
Write the first 5 terms
1 2 3 4 1
0, , , , . ... ...
2 3 4 5
n
n

+
The terms in this sequence do not get close to
Any single value. The sequence Diverges
( )
1
( 1) 1
n
n
n
a
n
+

=
Write the terms for a
n
= 3
The terms are 3, 3, 3, 3
The sequence converges to 3.
y= L is a horizontal asymptote when
sequence converges to L.
A sequence that diverges
( )
1
( 1) 1
n
n
n
a
n
+

=
Sequences
Write the first 5 terms of the sequence.
Does the sequence converge? If so, find the value.
1
( 1)
2 1
n
n
a
n
+

1 1 1 1
1, , , ,
3 5 7 9

1
( 1)
lim 0
2 1
n
n
n
+

1
1
( 1) 1
n
n
a
n
+
| |
=
|
\ .
1 2 3 4
0, , , ,
2 3 4 5
+
1
lim ( 1) 1
n
n
does not exist
n

| |

|
\ .
The sequence converges to 0.
The sequence diverges.
12.2 Infinite Series
1
1 1 1 1 1
...
2 4 8 16
2
n
n

=
= + + + +

1
1 1 1 1 1 ...
n

=
= + + + +

The series diverges because s

n
= n. Note that the
Sequence {1} converges.
Represents the sum of the terms in a sequence.
We want to know if the series converges to
a single value i.e. there is a finite sum.
1
1
( 1)
n
n n

=
+

1
1 1 1 1 1 1
...
( 1) 2 6 12 20 30
n
n n

=
= + + + + +
+

Partial sums of
1
1
1
1
2 2
s = =

2
2
3
1 1
1 2 2 3
s = + =

3
1 1 1
1 2 2 4 4
3
3 3
s = + + =

1 1 1 1
...
1 2 2 3 3 4 ( 1 1 )
n
n
s
n n n
= + + + =
+ +
If the sequence of partial sums converges,
the series converges
and
1 2 3 4 5
, , , , ... ...
2 3 4 5 6 1
n
n +
Converges to 1 so series converges.
1
1 1 1 1 1 1
...
( 1) 2 6 12 20 30
n
n n

=
= + + + + +
+

Finding sums
1
1
( 1)
n
n n

=
+

1
1
1
( 1)
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
(1 ) ( ) ( ) ... ...
1 2 2 3 3 4 1
n
n
n n
n n n n

=
=
+
| |
= + + + +
|
+ +
\ .

Can use partial fractions to rewrite

1
1 1
lim (1 ) 1
( 1) 1
n
n
n n n

=
= =
+ +

. The partial sums of the series

1
1
( 1)
n
n n

=
+

Limit
Geometric Series
1
1 1 1 1 1
...
2 4 8 16
2
n
n

=
= + + + +

Each term is obtained from the preceding

number by multiplying by the same number r.
1 1 1 1
...
5 25 125 625
+ +
2 4 8 16
...
3 3 3 3
+ + + +
Find r (the common ratio)
Is a Geometric Series
1 1 1 1
...
2 4 8 16
+ + + +
3 12 48 192
...
5 25 125 625
+ +
2 4 8 16
...
3 3 3 3
+ + + +
1
1
n
n
ar

Where a = first term and r=common ratio

Write using series notation
1
1
1 1
2 2
n
n

=
| |
|
\ .

1
1
3 4
5 5
n
n

=
| |

|
\ .

( )
1
1
2
2
3
n
n

The sum of a geometric series

2 3
...
n
n
rs ar ar ar ar = + + +
2 3 1
...
n
n
s a ar ar ar ar

= + + + +
n
n n
s rs a ar =
(
1
1
1
,
)
1
n
n
n
a ar
s
a r
r
r
r

= = =

1 . | 0 | ,
n
r as n if r <
| | 1
1
,
n
a
s r
r
= <

Geometric series converges to

If r>1 the geometric series diverges.
Multiply each term by r
Sum of n terms
subtract
Find the sum of a Geometric Series
1
1
, | | 1
1
n
n
a
ar r
r

=
= <

Where a = first term and r=common ratio

1
1
1 1
2 2
n
n

=
| |
|
\ .

1
1
3 4
5 5
n
n

=
| |

|
\ .

( )
1
1
2
2
3
n
n

The series diverges.

1
2
1
1
1
2
=

3
3 1
5
4
9 3
1
5
= =
+
Repeating decimals-Geometric Series
2 4 6 8
8 8 8 8
0.080808 ...
10 10 10 10
= + + + +
2
1
1
2
8
8
10
1
1 99
1
10
n
n
a
ar
r

=
= = =

The repeating decimal is equivalent to 8/99.

2 2
8 1
10 10
a and r = =
1
1
2 2
1 1
8 1
10 10
n
n
n n
ar

= =
| |
=
|
\ .

Series known to converge or diverge
1. A geometric series with | r | <1 converges
2. A repeating decimal converges
3. Telescoping series converge
A necessary condition for convergence:
Limit as n goes to infinity for nth term
in sequence is 0.
nth term test for divergence:
If the limit as n goes to infinity for the nth
term is not 0, the series DIVERGES!
Convergence or Divergence?
1
10
10 1
n
n
n

=
+
+

1
1 1
2
n
n n

=

+

( )
1
1.075
n
n

1
4
2
n
n

A series of non-negative terms converges

If its partial sums are bounded from above.
A sequence in which each term is less than or
equal to the one before it is called a monotonic
non-increasing sequence. If each term is greater
than or equal to the one before it, it is called
monotonic non-decreasing.
A monotonic sequence that is bounded
Is convergent.
12. 3 The Integral Test
Let {a
n
} be a sequence of positive terms.
Suppose that a
n
= f(n) where f is a continuous
positive, decreasing function of x for all x>N.
Then the series and the corresponding integral
shown both converge of both diverge.

n
n N
a

( )
N
f x dx

}
f(n) f(x)
The series and the integral both converge or both diverge
Exact area under curve is between
If area under curve is finite, so is area in rectangles
If area under curve is infinite, so is area in rectangles
Area in rectangle corresponds to term in sequence
Using the Integral test
2
1
1
n
n
n

=
+

2
2 2
1
1 1
2
1 2
lim lim ln( 1)
2
1 1
lim (ln( 1) ln2)
b
b
b b
b
x x
dx dx x
x x
b

(
= = +

+ +
+ =
} }
Thus the series diverges
2
( )
1
n
n
a f n
n
=
+
=
2
(
1
)
x
f
x
x =
+
The improper integral diverges
Using the Integral test
2
1
1
1
n
n

=
+

| |
2 2 1
1 1
1 1
lim lim arctan
1 1
lim (arctan arctan1)
2 4 4
b
b
b b
b
dx dx x
x x
b
t t t

= =
+ +
= =
} }
Thus the series converges
2
( )
1
1
n
a f n
n
= =
+
2
1
( )
1
f x
x
=
+
The improper integral converges
Harmonic series and p-series
1
1
p
n
n

Is called a p-series
A p-series converges if p > 1 and diverges
If p < 1 or p = 1.
1
1 1 1 1 1 1
1 .... ....
2 3 4 5
n
n n

=
= + + + + + +

Is called the harmonic series and it

diverges since p =1.
1
1
3
1
n
n

Identify which series converge and which diverge.

1
1
n
n

1
3
1
n
n
t

1
1
n
n

2
1
100
n
n

1
1
3 4
5 5
n
n

=
| |

|
\ .

12. 4Direct Comparison test

Let
1
n
n
a

be a series with no negative terms

1
n
n
a

Converges if there is a series

Where the terms of a
n
are less than or equal to
the terms of c
n
for all n>N.

1
n
n
c

1
n
n
a

Diverges if there is a series

Where the terms of a
n
are greater than or equal
to the terms of d
n
for all n>N.

1
n
n
d

Limit Comparison test

both converge or both diverge:
Limit Comparison test
lim , 0
n
x
n
a
c c
b

= < <
Then the following series
1
n
n
a

1
n
n
b

=
and
lim 0
n
x
n
a
b

=
Amd
1
n
n
b

Converges then
1
n
n
a

=
Converges.
lim
n
x
n
a
b

=
1
n
n
b

Diverges then
1
n
n
a

Diverges.
and
and
Convergence or divergence?
1
1
2 3
n
n

=
+

2
1
1
n
n
n

=
+

1
1
3 2
n
n

Alternating Series
A series in which terms alternate in sign
1
( 1)
n
n
n
a

1
1
( 1)
n
n
n
a

+
=

or
1
1
1 1 1 1 1
( 1) ...
2 4 8 16
2
n
n
n

+
=
= + +

1
1 1 1 1
( 1) 1 ...
2 3 4
n
n
n

=
= + + +

Alternating Series Test

1
1 2 3 4
1
( 1) ...
n
n
n
a a a a a

+
=
= + +

Converges if:
a
n
is always positive
a
n
>a
n+1
for all n > N for some integer N.
a
n
0
If any one of the conditions is not met, the
Series diverges.
Absolute and Conditional Convergence
A series is absolutely convergent if the
corresponding series of absolute values
converges.

A series that converges but does not converge
absolutely, converges conditionally.

Every absolutely convergent series converges.
(Converse is false!!!)
n
n N
a

n
n N
a

Is the given series convergent or divergent? If it is

convergent, its it absolutely convergent or
conditionally convergent?
( 1) / 2
1
( 1)
3
n n
n
n
+
=

1
( 1)
ln( 1)
n
n
n

1
( 1)
n
n
n

1
1
( 1) ( 1)
n
n
n
n
+
=
+

a) Is the given series convergent or divergent? If

it is convergent, its it absolutely convergent or
conditionally convergent?
( 1) / 2
1
( 1) 1 1 1 1
...
3 9 27 81
3
n n
n
n
+
=

= + +

This is not an alternating series, but since

( 1) / 2
1 1
( 1) 1
3 3
n n
n n
n n
+
= =

=

Is a convergent geometric series, then the given
Series is absolutely convergent.
b) Is the given series convergent or divergent? If
it is convergent, its it absolutely convergent or
conditionally convergent?
1
( 1) 1 1 1
......
ln( 1) ln2 ln3 ln4
n
n
n

= + +
+

Diverges with direct comparison with the harmonic

Series. The given series is conditionally convergent.
1
( 1) 1 1 1
......
ln( 1) ln2 ln3 ln4
n
n
n

= + + +
+

Converges by the Alternating series test.

c) Is the given series convergent or divergent? If
it is convergent, its it absolutely convergent or
conditionally convergent?
1
1
( 1) ( 1) 2 3 4 5
1 2 3 4
n
n
n
n
+
=
+
= + +

By the nth term test for divergence, the series

Diverges.
d) Is the given series convergent or divergent? If
it is convergent, its it absolutely convergent or
conditionally convergent?
1
( 1) 1 1 1 1
1 2 3 4
n
n
n

= + +

Converges by the alternating series test.

1
( 1) 1 1 1 1
1 2 3 4
n
n
n

= + + +

Diverges since it is a p-series with p <1. The

Given series is conditionally convergent.
The Ratio Test
Let be a series with positive terms and n
n N
a

1
lim
n
n
n
a
a

+

=
Then
The series converges if < 1
The series diverges if > 1
The test is inconclusive if = 1.
The Root Test
Let be a series with non-zero terms and n
n N
a

lim | |
n
n n
a L

=
Then
The series converges if L< 1
The series diverges if L > 1 or is infinite
The test is inconclusive if L= 1.
1
2
!
n
n
n

2 1
1
3
2
n
n
n
n

+
=

Convergence or divergence?
2
1
n
n
n
e
n

. Procedure for determining Convergence

Power Series (infinite polynomial in x)
2
0 1 2
0
..... ...
n n
n n
n
c x c c x c x c x

=
= + + +

2
0 1 2
0
( ) ( ) ( ) ..... ( ) ...
n n
n n
n
c x a c c x a c x a c x a

=
= + + +

Is a power series centered at x = 0.

Is a power series centered at x = a.
and
Examples of Power Series
2 3
0
1 ...
! 2 3!
n
n
x x x
x
n

=
= + + + +

2
0
( 1) 1 1 1
( 1) 1 ( 1) ( 1) ..... ( 1) ...
3 9
3 3
n
n n
n n
n
x x x x

+ = + + + +

Is a power series centered at x = 0.

Is a power series centered at x = -1.
and
Geometric Power Series
2 3 4
0
1 ...
n n
n
x x x x x x

=
= + + + + +

1
, 1
1 1
1
a
S x
r x
a and r x = =
= = <

1
2
2
2 3
3
1
1
1
P x
P x x
P x x x
= +
= + +
= + + +
. The graph of f(x) = 1/(1-x) and four of its
polynomial approximations
Convergence of a Power Series
There are three possibilities
1)There is a positive number R such that the
series diverges for |x-a|>R but converges for
|x-a|<R. The series may or may not converge
at the endpoints, x = a - R and x = a + R.

2)The series converges for every x. (R = .)

3)The series converges at x = a and diverges
elsewhere. (R = 0)
What is the interval of convergence?
0
( 1)
n
n

Since r = x, the series converges |x| <1, or

-1 < x < 1. In interval notation (-1,1).
Test endpoints of 1 and 1.
0
(1)
n
n

Series diverges
Series diverges
2 3 4
0
1 ...
n n
n
x x x x x x

=
= + + + + +

Geometric Power Series

1 3 3
1 3 ( 1) 4
1
1
1 ( 1)
3
1
( 1)
3
a and r x
x
a
S
r x x
= = =
= = +
+
=
+ + +
+
2
0
( 1) 1 1 1
( 1) 1 ( 1) ( 1) ..... ( 1) ...
3 9
3 3
n
n n
n n
n
x x x x

+ = + + + +

1
( 1
3
1
1 1
)
( )
3
r x
x
= +
< +
Find the function
Find the radius of convergence
2 4 x < <
Geometric Power Series
0
( 1)
( 1)
3
n
n
n
n
x

Find the radius of convergence

Find the interval of convergence
For x = -2,
0 0 0
( 1) ( 1) ( 1) 1
( 2 1)
3 3 3
n n n
n
n n n
n n n

= = =

+ = =

Geometric series with r < 1, converges
0 0 0 0
( 1) ( 1) ( 3) 3
( 4 1) 1
3 3 3
n n n n
n
n n n
n n n n

= = = =

+ = = =

By nth term test, the series diverges.
For x = 4
2 4 x s < Interval of convergence
Finding interval of convergence
1 x <
Use the ratio test:
1
1
1
n n
n n
x x
u and u
n n
+
+
= =
+
1
1
lim lim
1
n
n
n n
n
n
u x n
x
u n
x
+
+

= =
+
R=1
For x = 1 For x = -1
0
n
n
x
n

(-1, 1)
0
1
n
n

0
( 1)
n
n
n

Harmonic series
diverges
Alternating Harmonic series
converges
1
1
lim lim
1
n
n
n n
n
n
u x n
x
u n
x
+
+

= =
+
[-1, 1)
Interval of convergence
Differentiation and Integration of Power Series
2
0 1 2
0
( ) ( ) ( ) ..... ( ) ...
n n
n n
n
c x a c c x a c x a c x a

=
= + + +

If the function is given by the series

Has a radius of convergence R>0, the on the
interval (c-R, c+R) the function is continuous,
Differentiable and integrable where:
1
0
( ) ( )
n
n
n
f x nc x a

=
'
=

0
( )
( )
1
n
n
n
x a
f x dx C c
n

= +
+

}
The radius of convergence is the same but the
interval of convergence may differ at the endpoints.
Constructing Power Series
If a power series exists has a radius of convergence = R
It can be differentiated
2
0 1 2
( ) ( ) ( ) ..... ( ) ...
n
n
f x c c x a c x a c x a = + + +
2 1
1 2 3
( ) 2 ( ) 3 ( ) ..... ( ) ...
n
n
f x c c x a c x a nc x a

'
= + +
2
2 3
( ) 2 2*3 ( ) 3*4( ) .... f x c c x a x a
''
= + +
2
3 4
( ) 1*2*3 2*3*4 ( ) 3*4*5( ) ... f x c c x a x a
'''
= + + +
( )
( ) ! ( )
n
n
f x n c terms with factor of x a = +
So the nth derivative is
( )
( ) ! ( )
n
n
f x n c terms with factor of x a = +
All derivatives for f(x) must equal the series
Derivatives at x = a.
1
2
3
( )
( ) 1*2
( ) 1*2*3
f a c
f a c
f a c
'
=
''
=
'''
=
( )
( ) !
n
n
f a n c =
( )
( )
!
n
n
f a
c
n
=
Finding the coefficients for a Power Series
( )
2 3
0
( )
( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ...
! 2! 3!
( )
...
!
k
k
n
n
f a f a f a
f a f x a x a x a
k
f a
x
n

=
'' '''
' = + + +
+ +

If f has a series representation centered at x=a, the

series must be
If f has a series representation centered at x=0, the
series must be
( )
2 3
0
( )
(0) (0) (0)
( ) (0) ( ) ( ) ...
! 2! 3!
(0)
...
!
k
k
n
n
f f f
f a f x a x a
k
f
x
n

=
'' '''
' = + + +
+ +

Form a Taylor Polynomial of order 3 for

sin x at a =
n f
(n)
(x) f
(n)
(a)

f
(n)
(a)/n!
0 sin x
1 cos x
2 -sin x
3 -cos x
2
2
2
2
2
2

2
2

2
2
2
2
2
2*2!

2
2*3!

4
t
The graph of f(x) = e
x
and its Taylor
polynomials
2 3 4
0
1 ...
! 2 3! 4!
n
n
x x x x
x
n

=
= + + + + +

Find the derivative and the integral

( )
2 1
3 5 7
0
1
...
(2 1)! 3! 5! 7!
n
n
n
x
x x x
x
n
+

= +
+

Taylor polynomials for f(x) = cos (x)

Converges only at x = 0