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Discuss the ways in which editing and editing language can create meaning This will be the discussion of the ways editing creates meaning, focusing on editing and editing language. Beginning with shot juxtaposition, developed with Kuleshov and Eisensteins theories of editing practice. Then moving onto transitions to discover how meaning is created at this level fitting them into Peirces Taxonomy of signs as icons to describe the psychological effect editing has on the audience. In relation to this it will then be a matter of describing how parallel and continuity based editing works and how the audience can understand them. Finishing off with how the audience has learned to interpret all of this and is able to understand what the editors intentions are. The language of editing relies heavily on juxtaposition because it is an essential tool in order to create meaning. Now there are many theories that can be applied to how juxtaposition creates meaning, but I will focus on two from the Soviet Union. Sergei Eisenstein popularized montage theory which the viewers had to find meaning in juxtaposition which was the substitute to the Wests style of continuity editing. (Nelmes, 1999, p423) Battleship Potemkin (1925) and Strike (1925) both show examples of this type of montage editing style. There are many sources that discuss juxtaposition; Watts discusses how it can limit the number of readings of meaning (Watts, 1992, p82.) Hitchcock, in an episode of Telescope (1964) (uploaded by mcglue, 2010, broadcast date 1964) also discussed how the shot juxtaposition can create the meaning of a piece of film through what is known as the Kuleshov Effect. Lev Kuleshov demonstrated how meaning is created through juxtaposition of shots through the 1910s and 1920s with a piece of film. An actors expressionless face conveyed different meanings because of juxtaposition. To the audience he was looking and reacting to these shots, yet his face was expressionless, which shows the power of editing (Figure 1). Juxtaposition of shots creates meaning using Synchronics and Diachronics. To briefly explain these concepts in relation to editing, synchronic analysis is a breakdown of an individual shot whereas diachronic analysis is a breakdown of the narrative that is told over the course of the edit. The way in which you can uncover the meanings within either the single shot is through connotative and denotative analysis. These terms are originally used for linguistic analysis, but since editing communicates different meanings it can be classed as a language, hence the title of the essay. Just to explain these terms, in language denotation is a words definition and connotation is the meaning that the word has (Beard, 2008, p79.) If we take these terms and apply them to editing, specifically the shots, then the denotative meaning is what the shot consists of, where we can use mise en scene (what is in the scene) to develop this and the connotative is what that shots meaning is. This can be almost limitless in terms of interpretation due to the nature of negotiation in meaning, where people choose what meaning to accept and believe.

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The meaning of a synchronic analysis and a diachronic analysis will obviously be vastly different. If you look at a single shot, you only have the meaning of that shot, whereas if you take a diachronic approach you have the meaning of the overall edit or sequence. However it is important to realize that each individual synchronic shot makes up the diachronic narrative. Without the synchronic, the diachronic is impossible. As mentioned the synchronic analysis is comprised of the mise en scene breakdown and the denotative/connotative analysis. With the synchronic we look at a shot of a sequence and decode the denotative meaning of that shot. So looking at the mise en scene we interpret what the content is. If you then do the same for all the other shots in a given sequence then you can decode the connotative meaning of the entire sequence through the synchronic action to provide a diachronic analysis. Thats the meaning you get if you look at the content of an edit. But what if you look at the transitions of an edit? Meaning also lies there, not just within juxtaposition. The cut, the fade and the dissolve are the transitions and how these are used provide syntax or rules of editing. Using syntagmatic analysis I will attempt to break down what meanings these individual transitions carry. A cut (Figure 2), as Thompson (1993, p40-42) states is not registered by the audience. In other words we accept it as a form of pictorial truth. Its use is to transition a shot to the next, but what is its meaning? This is difficult to determine, the meaning lies in what is being cut to, and the transition itself does not carry any meaning other than that of the shots juxtaposed together. However, if we use the American philosopher Peirces Taxonomy of signs, the cut becomes an icon; a sign with a significant characteristic (Peirce, 1940, p104) the cut simulates a blink. The image that we see can change in the time it takes to blink just as easily as it changes with a cut. For example, if an object moves towards you and you blink, the objects position has changed; this is practically the same principle of a jump cut (Figure 3). The fade (Figure 4) has a meaning all on its own, possibly the strongest. Thompson (1993, p44-45) describes that the fade represents a change in time and location and is also registered by the audience. However, the fade is split into two main different uses, the fade up and the fade down. The two have very contrasting meanings based on their own merits, regardless of the shot juxtaposition and composition. Ill start with the fade up, in a very basic sense the fade up provides a beginning to something. Again if we look at contemporary cinema we find many examples of this, the fade from black to white is a very visual representation of a beginning, be that the beginning of a film, a new act of a television show or even occasionally the beginning of a scene. The fade to black then, is the visual representation of the end in film or television. If we delve deeper using the Taxonomy of signs then the fade up is an icon of opening eyes and the fade down is an icon of closing eyes.

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The dissolve (Figure 5) is a difficult one. It cannot be placed into my Taxonomy argument but has a tangible meaning all on its own, that does not just lie in the shot juxtaposition. It is regarded as a device which gives the audience an indication of a change of time or location. The way the dissolve creates this is because unlike the cut, we see the dissolve (Thompson 1993, p42-43). Juxtaposition also helps enforce this because if you look at many contemporary films, most times there will be a dramatic difference between the previous shot to the current shot in terms of surroundings and content. More often than not, the cut will not work in this instance because it will create a jump cut. But this is not the only time it is used, when there is also a definitive relationship between images, the transition can be used. It is also a popular, but slightly clichd method of leading into flashbacks, it informs the viewer that focus is shifting and the time is changing. However, the dissolve is not the only transition that can provide this feeling. The iconic Star Wars franchise used wipes to get this meaning across where one shot replaced another by travelling from one side of the frame to the other. It is clear that editing has a psychological interpretation, evidenced through my argument of the cut and fade being placed as icons in Peirces Taxonomy. The dissolve cannot be included but it still creates this psychological meaning through repeated use leading to it becoming a convention, but how else is this true? The concept of myth is a semiological idea that signs have not only the meaning of sign and signifier, but also a deeper meaning based on history and memory. Barthes essay Myth Today (1973) discusses how myth works and it is this how we interpret. We should now consider parallel editing where two sequences run at the same time. So an example could be from The Dark Knight (2010) Joker is talking with Two Face in the Hospital and Bruce Wayne is attempting to prevent the death of a targeted official. Here a cut is the only way to edit this sequence because a dissolve carries the wrong meaning. As previously stated the dissolve is a representation of a change in time as well as location. If a dissolve is used between each shot just because there is a change in location then it gives the impression this sequence is happening over a huge length of time, when the reality and often desired effect is that it is running concurrently. Jumping back to the notion of a jump cut, this is an aspect of continuity editing. The sequence of shots must have some form of coherence through maintaining continuity. This consisting of motion, sound, position and content (Thompson, 1993, p47-48.) () commercial film editing is shaped to support the comprehension of meaningful events that bridge breaks in low-level visual continuity, and even breaks in continuity of spatial and temporal location. (Magliano JP, Zacks JM, 2011, p1489-1517)

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This quotation from the Cognitive Science journal shows that even if continuity is not maintained or if two edited sequences run parallel to one another, the audience can still comprehend what is happening, both in a synchronic and diachronic understanding. But how does the audience learned to interpret what all this means? Editing has been around and has developed over at least the last century; remember Kuleshov was experimenting back in the 1900s with his editing as was Eisenstein with his montage theory. Focusing on quite possibly the main way audiences have learned to interpret editing, what the transitions are trying to tell them as well as the shot juxtaposition. Here I use refer back to Barthes theories on Myth. Audiences have learned what the interpretations of editing transitions can be. So most people have seen more than a single film and they often start watching them at a young age. Many arent concerned at that time what the transitions are trying to convey, but as we get older understanding develops. Whether that is through experience or through other methods like reading and discovering we know based on past film experiences that a dissolve does connote a change in time or location etcetera. Editing language creates meaning. It does this through its transitioning, its shot juxtaposition and audience negotiation. Looking at shot juxtaposition first I argue that it is here meaning lies. But what of the transitions? Even they had meanings all of their own, independent of the juxtaposition. The cut and the fade are able to simulate real life i.e. blinking and closing eyes, however the dissolve does not, yet it is still psychologically understood. However if transitions are purely used to simulate real life then edited sequences would last for hours, this is where parallel and continuity based editing comes in. They break the notion that editing simulates real life but rather does the impossible and tells stories not only diachronically but also synchronically. Each shot carries a meaning and it is when the synchronics are together, the diachronic narrative is formed. It is understood by audiences based on their previous experiences with cinema. But what kind of things could be included or researched that I have not? There really wasnt anything other than the very basics of transitional meanings which was disappointing to me. Someone could research into this and develop new ideas and theories that could argue this essay. With semiotic methods, I could not find much in the way of documentation relating to anything other than linguistics, let alone the topic discussed.

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REFERENCES
Beard, A (ed). (2008), Working With Texts A Core Introduction To Language Analysis, London: Routledge Barthes, R. (2009), Mythologies, London: Vintage Long, P. Wall, T. (2009), Media Studies: Texts, Production and Context, London: Longman Magliano JP, Zacks JM. (2011), The impact of continuity editing in narrative film on event segmentation. Cognitive science. [online] http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.15516709.2011.01202.x/abstract accessed 24/3/12 Nelmes, J. (1999), An Introduction to Film Studies Second Edition, London: Routledge Sanders Peirce, C. (1940), Philosophical Writings of Peirce, Courier Dover Publications Telescope. (1964) A Talk With Hitchcock Uploaded by: mcglue, 2010, Hitchcock Demonstrates Montage, [video, online: YouTube] Accessed 12/3/12, available at: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ruoPT9JeYHA Thompson, R. (1993), Grammar of the Edit: Media Manual, Oxford: Focal Press Watts, H. (1992), Directing on Camera, London: Aavo Media

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APPENDICIES

Figure 1: The Kuleshov Effect http://www.gamasutra.com/view/feat ure/4412/persuasive_games_the_pic nic_.php?print=1

Figure 2: A Cut

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Figure 3: A Jump Cut

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Figure 4: A Dissolve

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Figure 5: The Fade

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BIBLIOGRAPHY
Anonymous. (2009),The Art and Craft of Film Editing, Cineaste (ARCHIVE). [online] http://dd6lh4cz5h.search.serialssolutions.com/?ctx_ver=Z39.882004&ctx_enc=info%3Aofi%2Fenc%3AUTF8&rfr_id=info:sid/summon.serialssolutions.com&rft_val_fmt=info:ofi/fmt:kev:mtx:journal&rft. genre=article&rft.atitle=The+Art+and+Craft+of+Film+Editing&rft.jtitle=Cineaste+%28ARCHIVE %29&rft.au=Anonymous&rft.date=2009-08-01&rft.issn=00097004&rft.volume=34&rft.issue=2&rft.spage=54&rft.externalDBID=ICIN&rft.externalDocID=1662 496401 accessed: 23/3/12 I was looking at this questionnaire in the hopes that there would be some reference to how editing creates meaning, the theme of my essay. Since these are professionals discussing the craft of editing their views and opinions would be invaluable. Unfortunately it was mostly about their editing processes. Barnett, C. (2004), [online] Deconstructing Context: Exposing Derrida, Transactions of the Institute of British Geographers, accessed: 13/2/12 [online] http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.0020-2754.1999.00277.x/pdf I looked at this article for some insight into Derridas theories on Deconstruction. This was initially useful when my essay was to be Structuralist vs Post-Structuralist in nature. Once I decided that was too broad for 2000 words I moved to semiotics and editing. Barthes, R. (2009), Mythologies, London: Vintage Used this to explain how editing is also a part of Myth, since it forms the meaning based on memory and history. We know from experience that these things mean that thing. Beard, A (ed). (2008), Working With Texts A Core Introduction To Language Analysis, Routledge London and New York Quite simply, this textbook mentions how meaning is created through connotation and denotation in language. Since this essay was about editing language, then these principles apply.

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Beller, JL. (1999), Dziga Vertov and the Film of Money, boundary, [online] http://www.jstor.org/stable/10.2307/303744?origin=api accessed 15/3/12 I was looking at this in the hopes there would be some mention of Vertovs use of transitions to create the same or different meanings to what other books in this bibliography mention. Unfortunately the focus was more on an analysis of the film in question, with little to no relevant citation material. However in the citations list the work of Eisenstein was referenced so I looked at the cited work. Berliner T, J Cohen, D. (2011),The Illusion of Continuity: Active Perception and the Classical Editing System, Journal of Film and Video, [online] http://dd6lh4cz5h.search.serialssolutions.com/?ctx_ver=Z39.882004&ctx_enc=info%3Aofi%2Fenc%3AUTF8&rfr_id=info:sid/summon.serialssolutions.com&rft_val_fmt=info:ofi/fmt:kev:mtx:journal&rft. genre=article&rft.atitle=The+Illusion+of+Continuity%3A+Active+Perception+and+the+Classic al+Editing+System&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Film+and+Video&rft.au=Todd+Berliner&rft.au=Dale+ J+Cohen&rft.date=2011-04-01&rft.issn=07424671&rft.volume=63&rft.issue=1&rft.spage=44&rft.externalDBID=IJFI&rft.externalDocID=2289 319381 accessed 21/3/12 This was an interesting journal to read because it discusses how even if cinematic images are disjointed because they have been edited in a continuity based principles, the viewer can still perceive them. Again not really relevant to the subject of this essay, so I didnt use. Chandler, D. 1st edn (2002), 2nd edn (2007) [online] Semiotics for beginners http://www.aber.ac.uk/media/Documents/S4B/sem04.html Online version of Semiotics: The Basics London: Routledge: I was looking at this online document in the hopes it would explain the methods of synchronic/diachronic/paradigmatic etc. methods of analysis. To a degree it does and was a help when it came to writing the essay, but was not really something to reference. Gronnvoll M. (2006), Horror Film: Creating and Marketing Fear, The Journal of Popular Culture, Malden, USA: Blackwell Publishing Inc, [online] http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1540-5931.2006.00241.x/abstract This was a journal that again didnt have a place in the essay, but interesting to read nonetheless because it details how the Horror genre is created and marketed, nothing though on meanings.

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Henderson B. (1971), Two Types of Film Theory, Film Quarterly, [online] http://www.jstor.org/stable/10.2307/1210090?origin=api This article discussed mostly the film theories of Russian filmmakers Eisenstein and Pudovkin among others. I was initially very excited to read this because I use Eisensteins work as examples in my essay However there was little mention of my focus so I was disappointed. However I did come away with some interesting views on editing; it was of the two filmmakers mentioned that only when unedited footage is arranged in montage form does film become art. I would argue this point with uses of long takes in popular and contemporary cinema. LoBrutto V. (2009), Invisible" or "visible" editing: the development of editorial styles and strategies: should we see the "hand" of the film editor?, Cineaste. [online] http://dd6lh4cz5h.search.serialssolutions.com/?ctx_ver=Z39.882004&ctx_enc=info%3Aofi%2Fenc%3AUTF8&rfr_id=info:sid/summon.serialssolutions.com&rft_val_fmt=info:ofi/fmt:kev:mtx:journal&rft. genre=article&rft.atitle=Invisible%22+or+%22visible%22+editing%3A+the+development+of+e ditorial+styles+and+strategies%3A+should+we+see+the+%22hand%22+of+the+film+editor%3 F&rft.jtitle=Cineaste&rft.au=LoBrutto%2C+Vincent&rft.date=2009-0101&rft.pub=Cineaste+Publishers%2C+Inc&rft.issn=00097004&rft.volume=34&rft.issue=2&rft.spage=43&rft.externalDBID=n%2Fa&rft.externalDocID=19 5135114 accessed 3/3/12 This was again interesting because it raises the question, should editing be invisible? Well to me editing is visible to a certain extent; we see the dissolves and the fades. The cuts however, as mentioned in the essay have become so used that we do not perceive them, according to Thompsons Grammar of the Edit. This would have been very useful if my essay was addressing this argument. Long, P. Wall, T. (2009), Media Studies: Texts, Production and Context, London: Longman I used this textbook to describe the methods of semiotic analysis I used in the essay. I was very limited to other sources, so I couldnt create an argument on different interpretations unfortunately, but that was not the focus of the essay.

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Magliano JP, Zacks JM. (2011), The impact of continuity editing in narrative film on event segmentation. Cognitive science. [online] http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.15516709.2011.01202.x/abstract accessed 24/3/12 This journal was extensive. Looking through for relevant citation material was taxing but the subject matter was interesting. It looks at how different editing styles have different cognitive effects. Useful because it backs up the psychological effect editing has, through my use of Pierces Taxonomy and parallel and continuity cutting. Nelmes, J. (1999), An Introduction to Film Studies Second Edition, Routledge London and New York Useful because of a lot of information regarding Soviet theories of filmmaking and editing, the ones I refer too are Eisensteins montage theory and Kuleshov and his effect. Sanders Peirce, C. (1940), Philosophical Writings of Peirce, Courier Dover Publications I was delighted with this book, since it discusses Peirces taxonomy, particularly mentioning in his words what it is and how it works. Especially useful to back up what I was saying about the cut being a part of this taxonomy, the icon of blinking. Uploaded by: shinobirastafari, (2012), Louis Markos on StructuralismFerdinand de Saussure to Claude Lvi-Strauss, YouTube [video] Accessed 7/3/12 available at: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PB2y3idiid8 This was one of the first things I looked at, back when this essay was to be extremely broad and discuss differences between structuralist and post-structuralist methods of analysis and come up with a kind of pros and cons essay. However since I realized how broad this essay would be I moved to something else. Sowell, T. (2010), Intellectuals and Society, National Review Online, [online] http://article.nationalreview.com/419693/intellectuals-and-society/thomas-sowell Accessed 21/3/12 Not sure how to describe this entry. The source was National Review Online but it does not seem to be a review and it was written by the author of the book in question. Could it be a section of the book? Well in any case this provided me with a useful source to form the critique of this way of thinking about editing and theory in general. But unfortunately was cut out of the essay.

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Sowell, T. (2010), Intellectuals and Society, Basic Books The actual book of the article mentioned above. Unfortunately looking through this book was not an option since it was not available. The preview on Google Books was very limited in its usefulness because much of the book pages were omitted. Looking through the Wikipedia article on the book provided some useful quotes but the problem is the accuracy is in question and they seem to be more of a summary of certain page ranges. Telescope (1964), Uploaded by: mcglue, (2010), Hitchcock Demonstrates Montage, [video, online: YouTube] Accessed 12/3/12, available at: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ruoPT9JeYHA An interesting interview section in which Alfred Hitchcock, discusses the assembly of film and how meaning is created and changed via editing. Thompson, R. (1993), Grammar of the Edit: Media Manual, Oxford: Focal Press This book struck me as very helpful in describing the meanings of the transitions and some basic insight into the Kuleshov Effect how shot juxtaposition creates meaning. Watts, H. (1992), Directing on Camera, London: Aavo Media This book was a how to guide for filmmaking but regardless provided little in the way of useful citation material. Except regarding shot juxtaposition.

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