Cutting Tools

Session 5

Cutting Tools
One of most important components in machining process Performance will determine efficiency of operation Two basic types (excluding abrasives)
Single point and multiple point

Must have rake and clearance angles ground or formed on them

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Cutting-Tool Materials
Toolbits generally made of seven materials
High-speed steel Cast alloys (such as stellite) Cemented carbides Ceramics Cermets Cubic Boron Nitride Polycrystalline Diamond
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Cutting Tool Properties

Hardness
Cutting tool material must be 1 1/2 times harder than the material it is being used to machine.

Capable of maintaining a red hardness during machining operation

Red hardness: ability of cutting tool to maintain sharp cutting edge Also referred to as hot hardness or hot strength
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Cutting Tool Properties

Wear Resistance
Able to maintain sharpened edge throughout the cutting operation Same as abrasive resistance

Shock Resistance
Able to take the cutting loads and forces

Cutting Tool Properties

Shape and Configuration
Must be available for use in different sizes and shapes.

High-Speed Steel
May contain combinations of tungsten, chromium, vanadium, molybdenum, cobalt Can take heavy cuts, withstand shock and maintain sharp cutting edge under red heat Generally two types (general purpose)
Molybdenum-base (Group M) Tungsten-base (Group T)

Cobalt added if more red hardness desired

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Cast Alloy
Usually contain 25% to 35% chromium, 4% to 25% tungsten and 1% to 3% carbon
Remainder cobalt

Qualities
High hardness High resistance to wear Excellent red-hardness

Operate 2 times speed of high-speed steel Weaker and more brittle than high-speed steel
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Carbide Cutting Tools

First used in Germany during WW II as substitute for diamonds Various types of cemented (sintered) carbides developed to suit different materials and machining operations
Good wear resistance Operate at speeds ranging 150 to 1200 sf/min

Can machine metals at speeds that cause cutting edge to become red hot without loosing harness
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Manufacture of Cemented Carbides

Products of powder metallurgy process
Tantalum, titanium, niobium

Operations
Blending Compaction Presintering Sintering
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Blending
Five types of powders
Tungsten carbide, titanium carbide, cobalt, tantalum carbide, niobium carbide

One or combination blended in different proportions depending on grade desired Powder mixed in alcohol (24 to 190 h) Alcohol drained off Paraffin added to simplify pressing operation
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Compaction
Must be molded to shape and size Five different methods to compact powder
Extrusion process Hot press Isostatic press Ingot press Pill press

Green (pressed) compacts soft, must be presintered to dissolve paraffin

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Presintering
Green compacts heated to about 1500 F in furnace under protective atmosphere of hydrogen Carbide blanks have consistency of chalk May be machined to required shape
40% oversize to allow for shrinkage that occurs during final sintering

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Sintering
Last step in process Converts presintered machine blanks into cemented carbide Carried out in either hydrogen atmosphere or vacuum
Temperatures between 2550 and 2730 F

Binder (cobalt) unites and cements carbide powders into dense structure of extremely hard carbide crystals
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Cemented-Carbide Applications
Used extensively in manufacture of metalcutting tools
Extreme hardness and good wear-resistance

First used in machining operations as lathe cutting tools Majority are single-point cutting tools used on lathes and milling machines

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Types of Carbide Lathe Cutting Tools

Blazed-tip type
Cemented-carbide tips brazed to steel shanks Wide variety of styles and sizes

Indexable insert type

Throwaway inserts Wide variety of shapes: triangular, square, diamond, and round
Triangular: has three cutting edges

Inserts held mechanically in special holder

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Reasons Indexable Inserts More Popular than Brazed-Tip Tools

1. Less time required to change cutting edge 2. Amount of machine downtime reduced considerable thus production increased 3. Time normally spent in regrinding eliminated 4. Faster speeds and feeds can be used 5. Cost of diamond wheels eliminated 6. Indexable inserts cheaper than brazed-tip

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Cemented-Carbide Insert Identification

American Standards Association has developed system by which indexable inserts can be identified quickly and accurately Adopted by manufacturers Table 31.1 in text

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Grades of Cemented Carbides

Two main groups of carbides
Straight tungsten carbide
Contains only tungsten carbide and cobalt Strongest and most wear-resistant Used for machining cast iron and nonmetals

Crater-resistant
Contain titanium carbide and tantalum carbide in addition to tungsten carbide and cobalt Used for machining most steels
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Qualities of Tungsten Carbide Tools

Determined by size of tungsten carbide particles and percentage of cobalt
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Finer the grain particles, lower the tool toughness Finer the grain particles, higher tool hardness Higher the hardness, greater wear resistance Lower cobalt content, lower tool toughness Lower cobalt content, higher hardness

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Additive Characteristics
Titanium carbide
Addition provides resistance to tool cratering Content increased
Toughness of tool decreased Abrasive wear resistance at cutting edge lowered

Tantalum carbide
Addition provides resistance to tool cratering
Without affecting abrasive wear resistance

Addition increases tool's resistance to deformation

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General Rules for Selection of Proper Cemented-Carbide Grade

1.
2.

3.
4.

5.

Use grade with lowest cobalt content and finest grain size Use straight tungsten carbide grades to combat abrasive wear To combat cratering, seizing, welding, and galling, use titanium carbide grades For crater and abrasive wear resistance, use tantalum carbide grades Use tantalum carbide grades for heavy cuts in steel, when heat and pressure might deform cutting edge
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Coated Carbide Inserts

Give longer tool life, greater productivity and freer-flowing chips Coating acts as permanent lubricant
Permits higher speed, reduced heat and stress

Two or three materials in coating give tool special qualities

Innermost layer of titanium carbide Thick layer of aluminum oxide Third, very thin layer titanium nitride
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Coatings
Titanium carbide
High wear and abrasion resistance (moderate speed) Used for roughing and finishing

Titanium nitride
Extremely hard, good crater resistance Excellent lubricating properties

Aluminum oxide
Provides chemical stability Maintains hardness at high temperatures
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Tool Geometry
Terms adopted by ASME

SIDE RELIEF
SIDE CLEARANCE

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Cutting-Tool Terms
Front, End, Relief (Clearance)
Allows end of cutting tool to enter work

Side Relief (Side)

Permits side of tool to advance into work

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Cutting-Tool Terms
Side Cutting Edge Angle
Angle cutting edge meets work
Positive Negative - protects point at start and end of cut

Nose Radius
Strengthens finishing point of tool Improves surface finish on work Should be twice amount of feed per revolution
Too large chatter; too small weakens point
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Side Rake
Large as possible to allow chips to escape Amount determined
Type and grade of cutting tool Type of material being cut Feed per revolution

Angle of keenness
Formed by side rake and side clearance
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Back Rake
Angle formed between top face of tool and top of tool shank
Positive
Top face slopes downward away from point

Negative
Top face slopes upward away from point

Neutral
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Cemented-Carbide Cutting-Tool Angles and Clearances

Vary greatly Depend on three factors
Hardness of cutting tool Workpiece material Type of cutting operation

May have to be altered slightly to suit various conditions encountered

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Cutting Speeds and Feeds

Important factors that influence speeds, feeds, and depth of cut
Type and hardness of work material Grade and shape of cutting tool Rigidity of cutting tool Rigidity of work and machine Power rating of machine

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Machining with Carbide Tools

To obtain maximum efficiency
Precautions in machine setup
Rigid and free from vibrations Equipped with heat-treated gears Sufficient power to maintain constant cutting speed

Cutting operation
Cutting tool held as rigidly as possible to avoid chatter

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Suggestions for Using Cemented-Carbide Cutting Tools

Work Setup
Mount work in chuck or holding device to prevent slipping and chattering Revolving center used in tailstock for turning work between centers Tailstock spindle extended minimum distance and locked securely Tailstock should be clamped firmly to lathe bed
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Suggestions for Using Cemented-Carbide Cutting Tools

Tool Selection
Use cutting tool with proper rake and clearances Hone cutting edge Use side cutting edge angle large enough tool can be eased into work Use largest nose radius operating conditions permit
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Tool Setup
1.

Hold carbide tool in turret-type holder

Amount of tool overhang enough for chip clearance

2. 3. 4. 5.

Cutting tool set exactly on center Designed to operate while bottom of tool shank is in horizontal position If rocker-type toolpost: remove rocker, invert rocker base, shim tool to correct height, Use special carbide toolholder (having no rake) Always keep it from touching work and machine parts to avoid damaging tool point
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Machine Setup
Always make sure machine has adequate power rating for machining operation and no slippage in clutch and belts Set correct speed for material cut and operation performed
Too high cause rapid tool failure Too low result in inefficient cutting action

Set machine feed for good metal-removal rate and good surface finish
Too light causes rubbing Too coarse slows down machine creates heat
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Cutting Operation
1. Never bring tool point against work that is stationary 2. Always use heaviest depth of cut possible for machine and size of cutting tool 3. Never stop machine while feed engaged
Will break cutting edge Stop feed and allow tool to clear before stopping machine
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4. Never continue to use dull cutting tool 5. Dull cutting tool recognized by
Work produced oversize with glazed finish Rough and ragged finish Change in shape or color of chips Can be applied under pressure Can be directed at point of cutting and kept there at all times
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6. Apply cutting fluid only if

Tool Selection and Application Guide

Table 31.7 in text lists points to follow to obtain most efficient metal-removal rates Other factors affecting optimum life
Horsepower available on machine tool Rigidity of machine tool and toolholders Shape of workpiece and setup Speed and feed rates used for machining operation
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Grinding Wheels
1. 80-grit silicon carbide wheel used for rough grinding carbides 2. 100-grit silicon carbide wheel used for finish grinding carbides 3. Diamond grinding wheels (100-grit) excellent for finish grinding; high finishes use 220-grit diamond wheel

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Type of Grinder
Heavy-duty grinder used for grinding carbides
Cutting pressures required to remove carbide are 5 to 10 times as great as high-speed steel tools

Should be equipped with adjustable table and protractor so necessary tool angles and clearances may be ground accurately

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Tool Grinding
1. 2.

Regrind cutting tool to angles and clearances recommend by manufacturer Use silicon carbide wheels for rough grinding
Use diamond wheels when high surface finishes required

3.

4.

Move carbide tool back and forth over grinding wheel face to keep amount of head generated to minimum Never quench carbide tools that become hot during grinding allow them to cool gradually
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Honing
Remove fine, ragged edge left by grinding wheel
Fine, nicked edge fragile

Suggestions for successful honing

320-grit silicon carbide or diamond hone 45 chamfer .002 to .004 in. wide honed on cutting edge when cutting steel No chamfer if used for aluminum, magnesium and plastics

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Cemented-Carbide Tool Problems

Consult Table 31.8 in text for possible causes and remedies
Change only one thing at a time until problem corrected

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Cemented-Carbide
Capable of cutting speeds 3 to 4 times highspeed steel toolbits Low toughness but high hardness and excellent red-hardness Consist of tungsten carbide sintered in cobalt matrix Straight tungsten used to machine cast iron and nonferrous materials (crater easily) Different grades for different work
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Metal-Cutting

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Turning
High proportion of work machined in shop turned on lathe
Workpiece held securely in chuck or between lathe centers Turning tool set to given depth of cut, fed parallel to axis of work (reduces diameter of work)
Chip forms and slides along cutting tool's upper surface created by side rake

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Turning

Assume cutting machine steel: If rake and relief clearance angles correct and proper speed and feed used, a continuous chip should be formed.
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Planing or Shaping
Workpiece moved back and forth under cutting tool
Fed sideways a set amount at end of each table reversal

Should have proper rake and clearance angles on cutting tool

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Plain Milling
Multi-tooth tool having several equally spaced cutting edges around periphery Each tooth considered single-point cutting tool (must have proper rake and clearance angles) Workpiece held in vise or fastened to table
Fed into horizontal revolving cutter Each tooth makes successive cuts Produces smooth, flat, or profiled surface depending on shape of cutter
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Plain Milling

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Inserted Blade Face Mill

Consists of body that holds several equally spaced inserts
Required rake angle Lower edge of each insert has relief or clearance angle ground on it

Cutting action occurs at lower corner of insert

Corners chamfered to give strength

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Face Milling

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End Milling
Multi-fluted cutters held vertically in vertical milling machine spindle or attachment Used primarily for cutting slots or grooves Workpiece held in vise and fed into revolving cutter End milling
Cutting done by periphery of teeth

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Nomenclature of an End Mill

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Nomenclature of an End Mill

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Drilling
Multi-edge cutting tool that cuts on the point Drill's cutting edges (lips) provided with lip clearance to permit point to penetrate workpiece as drill revolves Rake angle provided by helical-shaped flutes
Slope away from cutting edge

Angle of keeness
Angle between rake angle and clearance angle
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Characteristics of a Drill Point

Chip formation of a drill

Cutting-point angles for standard drill

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