Machinability of Metals

Unit 28

Machinability
Ease or difficulty with which metal can be machined Measured by length of cutting-tool life in minutes or by rate of stock removal in relation to cutting speed employed

Grain Structure
Machinability of metal affected by its microstructure Ductility and shear strength modified greatly by operations such as annealing, normalizing and stress relieving Certain chemical and physical modifications of steel improve machinability
Addition of sulfur, lead, or sodium sulfite Cold working, which modifies ductility
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Results of (Free-Machining) Modifications

Three main machining characteristics become evident
Tool life is increased
Better surface finish produced Lower power consumption required for machining

Low-Carbon (Machine) Steel

Large areas of ferrite interspersed with small areas of pearlite
Ferrite: soft, high ductility and low strength Pearlite: low ductility and high strength
Combination of ferrite and iron carbide

More desirable microstructure in steel is when pearlite well distributed instead of in layers

High-Carbon (Tool) Steel

Greater amount of pearlite because of higher carbon content
More difficult to machine steel efficiently

Desirable to anneal these steels to alter microstructures

Improves machining qualities

Alloy Steel
Combinations of two or more metals Generally slightly more difficult to machine than low-or high-carbon steels To improve machining qualities
Combinations of sulfur and lead or sulfur and manganese in proper proportions added Combination of normalizing and annealing

Machining of stainless steel greatly eased by addition of selenium

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Cast Iron
Consists generally of ferrite, iron carbide, and free carbon Microstructure controlled by addition of alloys, method of casting, rate of cooling, and heat treating White cast iron cooled rapidly after casting
hard and brittle (formation of hard iron carbide)

Gray cast iron cooled gradually

composed by compound pearlite, fine ferrite, iron carbide and flakes of graphite (softer)
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Cast Iron
Machining slightly difficult due to iron carbide and presence of sand on outer surface of casting Microstructure altered through annealing
Iron carbide broken down into graphitic carbon and ferrite
Easier to machine

Addition of silicon, sulfur and manganese gives cast iron different qualities
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Aluminum
Pure aluminum generally more difficult to machine than aluminum alloys
Produces long stringy chips and harder on cutting tool

Aluminum alloys
Cut at high speeds, yield good surface finish Hardened and tempered alloys easier to machine Silicon in alloy makes it difficult to machine
Chips tear from work (poor surface)
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Copper
Heavy, soft, reddish-colored metal refined from copper ore (copper sulfide)
High electrical and thermal conductivity Good corrosion resistance and strength Easily welded, brazed or soldered Very ductile

Does not machine well: long chips clog flutes of cutting tool
Coolant should be used to minimize heat
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Copper/Beryllium
Heavy, hard, reddish-colored copper metal with Beryllium added
High electrical and thermal conductivity Good corrosion resistance and strength Can be welded Somewhat ductile Withstands high temperature

Machines well
Highly abrasive to HSS Tooling Coolant should be used to lubricate and minimize tool wear
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Copper-Based Alloys: Brass

Alloy of copper and zinc with good corrosion resistance, easily formed, machines, and cast Several forms of brass
Alpha brasses: up to 36% zinc, suitable for cold working Alpha 1 beta brasses: Contain 54%-62% copper and used in hot working

Small amounts of tin or antimony added to minimize pitting effect of salt water Used for water and gas line fittings, tubings, tanks, radiator cores, and rivets
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Copper-Based Alloys: Bronze

Alloys of copper and tin which contain up to 12% of principal alloying element
Exception: copper-zinc alloys

Phosphor-bronze
90% copper, 10% tin, and very small amount of phosphorus High strength, toughness, corrosion resistance Used for lock washers, cotter pins, springs and clutch discs
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Copper-Based Alloys: Bronze

Silicon-bronze (copper-silicon alloy)
Contains less than 5% silicon Strongest of work-hardenable copper alloys

Mechanical properties of machine steel and corrosion resistance of copper

Used for tanks, pressure vessels, and hydraulic pressure lines

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Copper-Based Alloys: Bronze

Aluminum-bronze (copper-aluminum alloy)
Contains between 4% and 11% aluminum Other elements added
Iron and nickel (both up to 5%) increases strength Silicon (up to 2%) improves machinability Manganese promotes soundness in casting

Good corrosion resistance and strength Used for condenser tubes, pressure vessels, nuts and bolts
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Effects of Temperature and Friction

Heat created
Plastic deformation occurring in metal during process of forming chip Friction created by chips sliding along cutting-tool face

Cutting temperature varies with each metal and increases with cutting speed and rate of metal removal
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Effects of Temperature and Friction

Greatest heat generated when ductile material of high tensile strength cut Lowest heat generated when soft material of low tensile strength cut Maximum temperature attained during cutting action
affects cutting-tool life, quality of surface finish, rate of production and accuracy of workpiece
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High Heat
Temperature of metal immediately ahead of cutting tool comes close to melting temperature of metal being cut

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Friction
Kept low as possible for efficient cutting action Increasing coefficient of friction gives greater possibility of built-up edge forming
Larger built-up edge, more friction Results in breakdown of cutting edge and poor surface finish

Can reduce friction at chip-tool interface and help maintain efficient cutting temperatures if use good supply of cutting fluid
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Factors Affecting Surface Finish

Feed rate Nose radius of tool Cutting speed Rigidity of machining operation Temperature generated during machining process

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Surface Finish
Direct relationship between temperature of workpiece and quality of surface finish
High temperature yields rough surface finish Metal particles tend to adhere to cutting tool and form built-up edge

Cooling work material reduces temperature of cutting-tool edge

Result in better surface finish
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