• 1.

CARBON: -
•
• Carbon readily with iron to form iron carbide (Fe3C), a compound known as
cementite.
• Due to quantity and behavior of this compound steel can be heat treated to
various degrees of strength ant toughness.
• Within certain limitations, higher the carbon content, greater will be the Ultimate
strength, hardness and range of heat treatment.
• Carbon content must be considered for selecting a steel for given design.
• Low carbon steel is used where deep drawing or excessive mechanical working is
required without excessive strength.
• High carbon steel is used for great hardness and low ductility.
• For formed fittings and welded parts, low carbon steel is used.
• High carbon steel is used for springs.
• Medium carbon steel is used for forged fittings and tie rods for good strength and
ductility.
1)An exeptionally important property from the
aircraft viewpoint of MOLYBDENUM is the
improvement in the air-hardening properties
of steel .
2)Titanium is added in small quantities to 18-8
corrosion –resisting steel to reduce the
embrittlement at the operating temp of
exhaust stacks and collectors.
• 2. MANGANESE: -
•
• Main purpose of manganese is to deoxidize and de-
sulfurize the steel to produce a clean tough metal.
• It deoxidizes by eliminating ferrous oxide, which is a
harmful impurity.
• It combines with sulfur to form manganese sulfide, which is
harmless in small amounts.
• Sufficient manganese is added to the steel to leave an
excess of no more than 1% in the metal.
• Excess magnitude exists as manganese carbide (Mn3C),
which has characteristics in hardening and toughening the
steel similar to those of cementite, but not so great extent.
• Manganese also posses the property of penetration hardness.
• Presence of manganese will greatly improve the forging qualities of
the steel by reducing brittleness at forging and rolling temperature.
• An excess of more than 1% of manganese will increase the
brittleness of the metal.
• A manganese steel contains approximately 13% of manganese,
which is exceptionally hard and ductile, but too hard to cut and
must be forged, rolled, or cast to practically the finished shape.
Some finishing may be done by grinding. This material was used at
one time for tail-skid shoes on aircraft, which were cast to size.
Commercially it is used for rock-crusher jaws and railroad curves. It
is non-magnetic.
• 3. SILICON:
•
• Maximum 0.3% silicon is present in the steel.
• It is excellent deoxidizer, but combines with iron more
readily than carbon, therefore it must be limited.
• Small amount of silicon improve the ductility of the
steel.
• Its main purpose is to produce a sound metal.
• Large amount of silicon and manganese are added to
form silco-manganese steel, which are good impact
resistance
• 4. SULFUR:

• It is a very undesirable impurity, which must be limited to a maximum of

0.06%.
• Maximum permissible sulfur is always specified in the chemical
specification for any particular steel.
• Presence of sulfur renders steel brittle at rolling or forging temperatures,
and the same is said to be ‘hot short’.
• Manganese combined with sulfur form manganese sulfide, which is
harmless in small amounts.
• Presence of too much sulfur will form iron sulfide, which because of its
lower melting point, is in liquid form at the forging temperature of the
steel and results in cracking and breaking of the metal.
• Presence of 0.30% of manganese and 0.06% of sulfur will completely form
the manganese sulfide, which is harmless in small quantities.
• . PHOSPHORUS:

• Phosphorus is also an undesirable impurity and must be

limited to a maximum of 0.05%.
• Maximum permissible content of phosphorus is always
specified.
• Phosphorus is responsible for ‘cold shortness’ or brittleness
when the metal is cold.
• Below 0.05% specified there will be little, if any brittleness
in the steel.
• Very small amounts of phosphorus increase the strength
slightly.
• 6. NICKEL

• It is a white metal almost as bright as silver.

• In the pure state it is malleable, ductile and weld
able and does not corrode quickly.
• Nickel dissolves in all proportions in molten steel.
• Commonly used nickel steels contain from 3% to
5% nickel.
• Addition of nickel to steels increases the strength, yield
point, and hardness without affecting the ductility.
• Presence of nickel in steel slows down the critical rate
of hardening during heat treatment, which in turn
increases the depth of hardening and produces a finer
grain structure.
• There is less warpage and scaling of heat-treated
nickel-steel parts.
• Nickel increases the corrosion resistance of the steel. It
is one of the principal constituents of the so-called
“stainless” or corrosion-resisting steels.
•
• Chromium imparts hardness, strength, wear resistance
and corrosion resistance to steel.
• It also improve the magnetic qualities, chromium steel
is used for magnets.
• Chromium possess excellent “penetration hardness”
characteristics.
• Main use of chromium in alloys is in conjunction with
nickel, molybdenum and vanadium.
• Around 1% of chromium is present in these alloys,
which are strong, hard and have fair ductility.
• These alloys are also resistant to shock loads.
• Nickel-chromium alloys can be heat treated up to an
ultimate tensile strength as high as 250000 PSI and still
retain ductility.
• Corrosion resistance steels contains about 18% of
chromium and 8% of nickel.
• This metal is non-magnetic although some chromium
steels are used for magnets and nickel in its pure state
is magnetic.
• Some chromium alloys are used where great wear
resistance is required.
• A chrome-vanadium alloy is used for ball bearings and
a tungsten chromium alloy for high-speed cutting tools.
• 8. MOLYBDENUM
• Its a very effective alloying element.
• A small percentage has as much effect as
much larger amounts of other alloying
elements
• It improves the homogeneity of the metal and
reduces the grain size.
S.A.E. STEEL NUMBERING SYSTEM

S.A.E. (Society of Automotive Engineers) Numbering

System is commonly used to designate the steels used
in aircraft and automotive construction in United
States. The composition of the steel is partially
identified by means of a simple numerical system.
Only the major alloying element is so identified, but no
additional information could be included without
destroying the simplicity of the scheme now in use.
explained by S.A.E., the system is as follows:

• A numeral index system is used to identify the compositions of the S.A.E.

steels, which makes possible to use numerals on shop drawings and
blueprints that are partially descriptive of the composition of material
covered by such numbers.
• The first digit indicates the type to which the steel belongs; thus ‘1’ –
indicates a carbon steel; ‘2’ – a nickel steel and ‘3’ – a nickel chromium
steel.
• In the case of the simple alloy steels the second digit generally indicates
the approximate percentage of the predominant alloying element.
• Usually the last two or three digits indicate the average carbon content in
points or hundredths of 1%.
• Thus “2340” indicates a nickel steel of approximately 3% nickel (3.25 to
3.75) and 0.04% carbon (0.38 to 0.43)
• S.A.E. Steel Numbering System
• Type of Steel
• Numerals (and Digits)
• Carbon Steel
• Plain Carbon
• Free cutting (Screw stock)
• Manganese Steels
• 1xxx
• 10xx
• 11xx
• 13xx
•
• Nickel steels
• 3.50% Nickel
• 5.00% Nickel
• 2xxx
• 23xx
• 25xx
•
• Nickel –chromium steels
• 1.25% nickel; 0.60% chromium
• 1.57% nickel; 1.00% chromium
• 3.50% nickel; 1.50% chromium
• Corrosion and heat-resisting steels
• 3xxx
• 31xx
• 32xx
• 33xx
• 30xxx
•
• Molybdenum steels
• Carbon Molybdenum
• Chromium Molybdenum
• Chromium-nickel Molybdenum
• Nickel Molybdenum; 1.75% nickel
• Nickel Molybdenum; 3.50% nickel
•
• 4xxx
• 40xx
• 41xx
• 43xx
• 46xx
• 48xx
• S.A.E. Steel Numbering System
• Type of Steel
• Numerals (and Digits)
• Carbon Steel
• Plain Carbon
• Free cutting (Screw stock)
• Manganese Steels
• 1xxx
• 10xx
• 11xx
• 13xx
•
• Nickel steels
• 3.50% Nickel
• 5.00% Nickel
• 2xxx
• 23xx
• 25xx
•
HEAT TREATMENT OF STEEL

Heat treatment of steel is based on the fact that

the metal has crystalline structures. Change in
the structure of steel takes place at different
temperatures. Cold working of the steel causes
changes in the properties of the steel. To revert
back to the original properties, the material is
required to be heat treated.
The change in the structure of the steel takes
place when it is allowed to cool slowly from
high temperature. The grain structure of the
steel with high temperature is very fine. To
retain this type of grain structure, rapid
cooling is required so that there will not be
any time for the changes in the structure of
the steel to take place. Different types of heat
treatment are given to the steel to obtain
different properties.
CRITICAL RANGE
When the iron is cooled from molten state, at
16520F temperature the fall of temperature
stops momentarily in which gamma iron
changes into beta iron this point is designated
as Ar3. At 14000F again the fall of
temperature again stops momentarily and
beta iron changes into alpha iron and this
point is designated as Ar2.
. Same changes are taking place while heating.
These points while heating are designated as
Ac2 and Ac3. The temperature of Ac2 and Ac3
is higher than Ar2 and Ar3 by 200 respectively.
Ar2/Ac2 are known as lower critical point and
Ar3/Ac3 are known as upper critical point.
The critical range is the range of temperature
between the lower and upper critical points.
• When carbon is mixed with the iron, these numbers of
critical points will vary with different percentage of carbon.
• Low carbon steel has a third critical point Ar1/Ac1 at 12740F
which is known recalescent point because intense
evolution of heat causes the metal to glow.
• At slightly above 0.4% carbon the two upper critical points
merge together and forms a single point known as Ar3-2.
• At 0.85% carbon all three critical points merge and form
Ar3-2-1.
• Above 0.85% carbon a new point designated Arcm extends
above the Ar3-2-1 point.
• Alloy steels possess similar critical points but they occur at
different temperature for each steel.
• INTERNAL STRUCTURE OF STEEL

• Internal structure of steel is wholly dependent on the exact relationship of

iron and carbon. Carbon is in chemical combination with iron as iron
carbide known as Cementite.
• Up to 0.85% of carbon forms a perfect mixture with the pure iron, called
pearlite.
• Pearlite is a mechanical mixture of six parts of ferrite and one part of
cementite.
• Steel with less than 0.85% of carbon is composed of pearlite with excess
ferrite.
• Steel with more than 0.85% of carbon is composed of pearlite with excess
cementite.
• Eutectic alloy is the alloy of two substances which has the lowest fusing
point.
• Steel containing 0.85% of carbon is known as Eutectoid
Steel, steel which contains less than 0.85% of carbon is
known as hypo-eutectoid and the steel with more than
0.85% of carbon content is known as Hyper-eutectoid.
• When steel is cooled very slowly through the critical
range, laminated pearlite, which is most stable form,
will result.
• Pearlite is relatively strong, hard and ductile and has a
tensile strength of 1,00,000 p.s.i., elongation of 10%
and maximum hardening power
• Greatest hardness in the steel can be obtained with the carbon
content of 0.85%.
• Ferrite is pure alpha iron in carbon steel. In alloy steel, elements
like nickel, molybdenum or vanadium are in solid solution in the
ferrite.
• Ferrite is very ductile and having tensile strength of about 40,000
p.s.i.
• Ferrite does not have any hardening properties.
• Cementite is very hard and brittle and produces a hardening
qualities to steel to which it is a part.
• Austenite forms when the steel is heated above critical range and is
a solid solution of cementite in gamma iron. It is only stable at a
temperature above critical range.
 THEORY OF HEAT TREATMENT

• When molten steel solidify, critical range is reached and

goes through a transition. Pearlite with excess ferrite or
cementite forms.
• This transition of steel can be arrested by increasing the
rate of cooling i.e. quenching
• By this operation an extremely hard, brittle material with
shrinkage strains is obtained.
• By heating the above steel below critical range, the
shrinkage strains are reduced and moderate hardness and
strength in induced in the steel.
• Martensite is the main constituent of hardened steel,
which is an intermediate form of cementite in alpha iron.
Martensite is the hardest structure obtained in steel.
• Troostite is also an intermediate form like martensite, the
only difference is that it is also available in tempered steel
where as martensite is available in hardened steel only.
• Sorbite is third intermediate form between austenite and
pearlite. It is main constituent of drawn steel and has
maximum strength and ductility.
• Fine grain steel has the best physical properties.
• When steel is heated slightly above the critical range, fine
grains are formed and above that the grain will become
coarser.
• It is absolutely necessary to know the chemical
composition of the steel to know its critical range and to
give desired heat treatment for the desired properties.
 ANNEALING

• Annealing is done by heating the steel just above Ac3,

soaking at that temperature for definite time and
cooling it in the furnace itself.
• The time of soaking is one hour per inch thickness of
the steel.
• Cooling is done by leaving the steel in the furnace after
removing the heat till the temperature comes down to
9000 or less and then cooling it in air.
• Alternate method of slow cooling is to bury the metal
in ashes or lime.
• Annealed steel is fine grained, soft, ductile and without
internal stresses or strains.
• It is readily machineable workable.
• In the annealed state steel has the lowest
strength, due to this reason it is often given
further heat-treatment after machining and
mechanical working to increase its strength.
• Ductility of annealed steel is utilized in tube and
wire drawing and sheet rolling. If the operation of
drawing is repeated, subsequent annealing is to
be done.
• For the purpose of speed and economy following
modified type of annealing are used
– Process Annealing consists of heating below Ac1,
between 10200 – 12000F. It is mainly used in sheet
and wire industries to induce ductility.
– Spheroidizing improves the machineability of high
carbon steel. It consists of prolonged heating slightly
below critical range and followed by slow cooling.
– Shop Annealing is heating steel with welding torch to
9000 – 10000F and dropping it in to ashes or lime to
restrict the cooling rate. It is never used for aircraft
work unless it is to be followed by a regular heat-
treatment.
• Due to prolonged heating, scaling will occur
on the surface of the steel, which can be
avoided by the use of closed receptacles to
exclude air from the metal.
• Scale must be removed by cleaning or pickling
treatment.
 NORMALIZING

• Normalizing is also a form of annealing in

which steel is heated above Ac3 and cooled in
still air. The rate of cooling is faster than the
annealing, so the steel is harder and strong.
• Normalizing is done when uniform physical
properties are desired in the metal.
• Forging are normalized to relieve the internal
stresses.
• Normalizing will relieve stresses, refine grain and
make steel more uniform just as annealing but at
the same time improved physical properties are
obtained.
• Welded parts are normalized because welding
causes strains to the adjacent material and also
the welding itself is a cast structure as opposed to
wrought structure of the rest of the material and
will have different grain size.
• Normalizing of welded parts will reduce the
possibility of cracks and fatigue failure
 HARDENING

• It is first of two operation to develop high-strength

steel by heat-treatment.
• It consists of heating above Ac3, soaking until
uniformly heated and than quenching.
• This produces maximum hardness and tensile strength,
minimum ductility and internal strains. The material is
too hard and brittle for practical use.
• Normally oil is used as quenching medium for the
aircraft parts because cooling in oil is slower than brine
or water with less warping and cracking and sufficient
hardness.
• Quench crack is a result of non-uniform or too
rapid cooling of the steel.
• When a piece is quenched, the external
surface will cool fast and become martensite
where as the internal is still liquid which will
expand after solidifying and results in cracking
the external surface.
 DRAWING (TEMPERING)

• It is second operation required to develop high-

strength, heat-treated steel.
• It consists of heating hardened steel well below Ac1,
soaking and then quenching in oil or air.
• This treatment relieves the strains in hardened steel,
decreases the brittleness and restores ductility.
Strength and hardness are somewhat reduced.
• Strength, hardness and ductility obtained depend upon
the temperature to which the steel was re-heated.
Higher the temperature, lower strength and hardness,
greater ductility.