Electric and Hydrogen Powered Vehicles

Andrew Burke
1. Characteristics of conventional ICE vehicles 2. Vehicle performance and power requirements 3. Electric vehicle drivelines and components 4. Characteristics of batteries 5. Hydrogen fueled vehicle drivelines and issues 6. Onboard hydrogen storage technologies 7. Characteristics of hydrogen fueled vehicles

Basis of Comparisons
!All new vehicles and technologies are compared with available conventional ICE vehicles and the new vehicles are expected to be as good or better !Physical characteristics style, size and weight by class !Performance acceleration, speed, range, driveability, durability !Utility to the customer usefulness to meet needs, availability of fuel and refueling time, comfort, reliability, ease of operation, etc. !Economics - Initial cost of the vehicle, resale value, fuel cost, maintenance and cost of repairs, insurance, etc.

ICE Vehicle

Fuel

Engine

Transm.

wheels

Fuels and Refueling of ICE Vehicles

Fuels - Gasoline and Diesel (liquids) Storage steel tank, ambient pressure and temperature Fuel availability widely available at relatively low cost Refueling a few minutes and easy, low energy required

Characteristics of Conventional ICE Vehicles of Various Types

Curb Weight kg Compact 1160 car Mid-size 1500 car Full-size 1727 car Small 1590 SUV Mid-size 1910 SUV Large 2500 SUV

Type

CD .3 .3 .32 .38 .42 .45

Af Ft2 21.4 23.1 23.7 26.4 28.0 34

Rolling resist. coeff. .007 .007 .007 .008 .008 .008

Pmax kW 95 135 180 135 165 200

0EPAmpg 60mph City/hw* sec 10 25/31 8.5 8.0 10 9.5 9.5 20/28 17/25 19/25 15/19 14/16

All vehicles have A4 transmissions * The Mpg shown are those in the EPA Fuel Economy Guide. Measured fuel economy has been corrected by .9 for the FUDS and by .78 for the highway cycle.

The Federal Urban Driving Cycle (FUDS)

Baseline Vehicle Characteristics and Range

WB Vehicle class curb Wgt. kg Inches Wheel base Width inches F. E. mpg Fuel tank Gal. Range miles

Cars
Compact Mid -size Full -size
1136 1409 1590 102 108 113 67 72 75 34 28 25 13 17 18.5 442 476 462

SUVs
Small Mid -size Large
1455 1682 2364 103 107 118 70 72 78 22 21 16 15 20 28 330 420 448

Pickup Trucks
Compact Standard
1455 1910 118 138 69 80 20 18 18 26 360 468

Vehicle performance
"Speed - >75 mph "Acceleration 0-60 mph less than 10 seconds "Range between stops for refueling on the highway - >350 miles "Good and smooth driveability "Safe braking characteristics

Power and torque requirement at the wheels

Simple equation of motion: Fwheel = M a + Froad Torque at the wheel : TQ = Fwheel x Rtire
Vehicle shape/size + Aero drag 1/2 x (air density) x V2 x Cd x Af + grade Wveh x sin(grade)

Froad Froad

== = = =

Tires Rolling resistance Wveh x fr

Power required to wheels = Fwheel x V

(use proper units so Force in Newtons and Power in watts)

Vehicle Simulations
"Vehicle performance can be simulated using available computer (PC) programs - most available is ADVISOR developed by NREL "ADVISOR can simulate ICE vehicles and those utilizing most advanced technologies including EVs, hybrids, and fuel cells "Must specify the vehicle characteristics "Must specify driveline configuration and component size and characteristics "Must specify driveline operating strategy "Must specify driving cycle - speed vs. time "ADVISOR calculates acceleration, max. speed, gradeability, fuel economy, and emissions. Also determines component efficiencies and energy use.

Electric Vehicles
Battery powered using wall-plug electricity

Battery Volts kWh

Electronics Volts kW

Motor Rpm Torque kW

wheels Vehicle parameters

Range = (kWh)bat x 1000/ (Wh/mi)veh

Characteristics of Batteries for Electric Vehicles

Electrode Chemistry for the Nickel Metal Hydride Battery

The V vs. I curve for a battery at a fixed state-of-charge

Constant current discharge curves for a nickel metal hydride battery

Cut-away view of a prismatic nickel metal hydride battery

The Daimler-Benz A-Class EV

for a small electric vehicle

Hydrogen fueled vehicle drivelines and issues

Driveline options
Fuel cell/electric motor Hybrid engine/electric Engine/transmission (conventional)

Design Issues
Technology used to store the hydrogen onboard the vehicle Weight of H2 to be stored and the resultant range Hybridization of the fuel cell with batteries or ultracaps

Hydrogen Advantages
Abundant resource in stable form (water) Environmentally benign (nitrogen oxides can be formed when hydrogen is burned with air) Compatible with thermal or electrochemical systems

Hydrogen Disadvantages
Very few natural resources of available hydrogen exist. Hydrogen must be produced from another energy source (upstream emissions unless renewable pirmary source is used). Real and perceived safety issues.

Hydrogen storage technologies

" Compressed gas (5000psi and 10000psi)

"Cryogenic liquid (20 K) "Metal hydride (100 C and 300 C) "Chemical hydride (NaBH4) "Activated carbon (77 K) Status of the technologies: well developed for the compressed gas and cryogenic liquid technologies; R&D stage for the hydride and activated carbon technologies

System metrics for setting requirement targets and comparing hydrogen storage technologies
"Weight - % wt. H2/kg or kWh/kg "Volume gm H2/L or kWh/L "Energy intensity MJ/kg H2 "Refueling time in vehicle kg H2/minute "Hydrogen loss during storage gm H2/kg/hr.

DOE Technical Targets: On Board Hydrogen Storage

Storage Parameter Units 2005 2010 2015

Usable, specific-energy from H2 (net useful energy/max system mass)d Usable energy density from H2 (net useful energy/max system volume) Storage system cost e Fuel cost
f

kW.hr/kg (kg H2/kg) kW.hr/L (kg H2/L) $/kWe.hr net ($/kg H2) $ per gallon gasoline equivalent at pump C Cycles % of mean (min) @ % confidence C (g/sec)/kW Atm (abs) Sec Sec Sec kg H2/min (g/hr)/kg H2 stored Scc/hr

1.5 (0.045) 1.2 (0.036) 6 (200) 3 -20/50 (sun) 500 N/A -20/100 0.02 2.5 FC 10 ICE 0.5 4 8 0.5 1

2 (0.06) 1.5 (0.045) 4 (133) 1.5 -30/50 (sun) 1000 90/90 -30/100 0.02 FC 0.027 ICE 2.5 FC 35 ICE 0.5 0.5 4 1.5 0.1

3 (0.09) 2.7 (0.081) 2 (67) 1.5 -40/60 (sun) 1500 99/90 -40/100 0.02 FC 0.033 ICE 2 FC 35 ICE 0.5 0.5 2 2 0.05

Operating ambient temperatureg Cycle life (1/4 tank to full)h Cycle life variationi Minimum and Maximum delivery temperature of H2 from tank Minimum full flow Minimum delivery pressure of H2 from tank FC=fuel cell, I=ICE Transient response 10%-90% and 90%%j Start time to full flow at 20C Start time to full flow at minimum ambient Refueling ratek Loss of useable hydrogenl Permeation and leakagem Toxicity Safety Purityn

Federal enclosed-area safety-standard Meets or exceeds applicable standards Meets or exceeds applicable standards 98%

How reasonable are the DOE goals for H2 storage for vehicle applications? What do they mean in terms of vehicle design?
" Typical design limits

"H2 storage 10% of vehicle weight "Use of 25% of the volume under the vehicle for tanks

What would be the corresponding requirements for the metrics?

Hydrogen Storage Characteristics and Attributes

Vehicle Class
kg H2 Stored (1) Wgt. kg (2) Volume Liter (3) Volume Liter (4) % wt. H2 sys. gm H2/L sys. (3) gm H2/L sys. (4) Range Miles

Cars
Compact Mid -size Full -size
6.5 8.5 9.85 114 141 159 255 285 314 99 130 141 5.7 6.0 5.8 26 30 30 66 65 65 442 476 462

SUVs
Small Mid -size Large
7.5 10 14 145 168 236 265 283 340 115 153 214 5.2 6.0 5.9 28 35 41 65 65 65 330 420 448

Pickup Trucks
Compact Standard
9 13 145 191 300 407 137 198 6.2 6.8 30 32 66 66 360 468

(1) Kg H2 for same range as ICE ; (2) wt. H2 system 10% veh wt. ; 25% volume under veh. ; (4) volume of H2 sys. 2X gasol. tank

(3)

Summary of the characteristics of various H2 storage systems

Comparisons of the energy density of various energy storage technologies

Storage Tech. Batteries Lead -acid NiMtHydride Lithium -ion Compressed H2 5000psi 10000psi Liquid H2 Metal Hydrides 100 C 300 C Activated carbon Gasoline Wh/kg Wh/L

30 70 100

70 175 200

2000 1666 1885

700 1165 1400

535 1880 2000 11660

2000 1600 1000 8750

Energy Intensity of various H2 storages approaches

Hydrogen Storage Approaches Compressed gas 5000 psi 10000 psi Liquid (LH2) Activated carbon (77 deg K) Hydrides Low t emperature (< 100 deg C) High temperature (300 deg C) 10-12 20-25 10.2 11.4 28-45 8-10 Energy Intensity (MJ/kg)

Hydrogen Fueling Issues

"Storage technology selection "Volume and weight of the system onboard the vehicle "Time for refueling at a H2 station "Energy intensity of H2 production, preparation for storage, and refueling "Availability of H2 and refueling stations "Cost of H2 ($/kg) at stations

Characteristics of Hydrogen Fueled Vehicles

General Schematic of a FC Vehicle Driveline

Batteries or ultracaps Wh Fuel cell kW Electric motor kW Hydrogen storage kg wheels

Workshop Proceedings from the UC Davis FC Modeling Group

Simulation results for a mid-size car using the UC Davis FC Vehicle model

73 mpg eq.gas.

Estimating the hydrogen consumption of vehicles

I gallon gasoline = 1kg H2 mi/kg H2 = (mpg)gasoline x FC efficient improvement factor For the previous example, mi/kg H2 = 30 x 2.44 = 73.2 FC improvement factor from simulation results