What are tables and graphs?

Tables and graphs are visual representations. They are used to organise information to show patterns and relationships. A graph shows this information by representing it as a shape. Researchers and scientists often use tables and graphs to report findings from their research. In newspapers, magazine articles, and on television they are often used to support an argument or point of view.

Why do we want students to know about tables and graphs?

Tables and graphs can be useful tools for helping people make decisions. However, they only provide part of a story. Inferences often have to be made from the data shown. As well as being able to identify clearly what the graph or table is telling us, it is important to identify what parts of the story are missing. This can help the reader decide what other information they need, or whether the argument should be rejected because the supporting evidence is suspect. Students need to know how to critique the data and the way it is presented. A table or graph can misrepresent information by

leaving out important information. ST8055 gives an example of a graph with missing features. constructing it in such a way that it misrepresents relationships. This may be because of poor skills, or it may be done deliberately to bolster a particular argument, for example using 2-dimensional shapes to inflate apparent growth. See ST8734 for examples of misleading graphs.

It is easy, if students are not skilful at reading graphs and tables, to interpret them incorrectly. They can make wrong decisions because they are basing them on false inferences. When constructing graphs and tables, it is also possible to misrepresent the data. Research suggests that students often regard tables and graphs as an end in themselves. Few refer to them as a source of evidence, or as a way of exploring patterns and relationships in data or information.

The curriculum
Tables and graphs are relevant to almost all areas of the curriculum. The conventions of tables and graphs are consistent across all curricula. It is the context in which they are used that identifies them as science, social sciences, geography, etc. The table below gives examples of English, mathematics, and science ARB resources that include tables or graphs.

Examples from the Assessment Resource Banks Tables Graphs

English Construct a graph to show trends in a character's emotions related to a particular event: WL2546

Mathematics Complete a table to show the amount of staff members' Christmas bonus, then use this to calculate how much money is left over: NM1032

Mathematics Complete and use a table to graph the cost per hour of repairing a car: AL6516.

Science Complete a table about properties of paper towels: MW5673

Science Interpret a graph of a car's journey and add to the graph to represent a further description of the journey: PW4009

Key competencies
Investigating tables and graphs potentially strengthens several key competencies.

Using language, symbols, and texts: Knowing about graphs and tables strengthens students' ability to access and critique others' ideas. It also helps them to effectively communicate their own. The statement that students' "confidently use ICT" (p. 12) reinforces the role assistive technology has for tables and graphs. This should include organising, analysing, and making sense of information as well as being able to "access and provide information and to communicate with others" (Ministry of Education, 2007, p. 12). Participating and contributing: Interpreting and critiquing sometimes conflicting data is a necessary skill for making decisions. Tables and graphs are a useful tool for organising available data for decision making. They are also a useful way of providing evidence to convince others towards a particular argument. Thinking: Analysing and synthesising data from various sources is an important part of developing arguments and decision making.

What are the problem areas for students?

The National Education Monitoring Project (NEMP) identified two relevant sets of skills

extracting and interpreting information constructing or completing graphs and tables.

NEMP (2003) reported that many New Zealand students

did not give their graphs and tables an appropriate title did not label the axes appropriately had difficulty with working with more than one variable at a time, i.e. comparing, calculating, and working with multiple sources.

Trials of ARB resources have identified further areas of difficulty for students.

Language
Some technical vocabulary can cause problems for some students.

A table is sometimes called a chart. This is a correct use, but can confuse students.

Some students are only familiar with the everyday meaning of table. These students draw a kitchen table when asked to "draw a table". Go to Language Barriers.

In mathematics and science the term range is often used to refer to a single number whereas in everyday situations we tend to use the word "range" to refer to the set of numbers between a lower and upper limit. For example in the question "What is the range of temperature fluctuations shown in this place?" the correct answer would be 14 C if range is interpreted in a mathematical sense and 35C to 49C if range is interpreted in an every day context. Mathematics also refers to the y-axis of a graph as the range (the x-axis is called the domain).

Tables
In our ARB trials we have found that most students can complete simple table-reading tasks. Students have had difficulty with

constructing more complex tables, e.g. two-way tables transforming data from texts

interpolating and extrapolating information answering questions that involve calculations.

Other areas that are challenging for students are

comparing (for example, identifying differences) answering questions about the least (as opposed to the most) considering a number of features to make a decision using information in a table if they haven't also some contextual knowledge using the information in the table to justify decisions.

However, many students also do not complete these sorts of tasks well in contexts other than tables. Organising the information into a table is a helpful strategy for assisting students to develop these skills.

Graphs
In our ARB trials we have found students may have difficulty with

selecting an appropriate graph to communicate their findings providing a title for the graph naming the axes reading the scale of the axes, and relating them to the shape of or trends in the graph deciding on the appropriate scale to use when constructing graphs marking sub-units on the axes at regular intervals (although occasionally marking at irregular intervals may be acceptable) including the units of measure (plus any multipliers) on each axis of a graph answering questions that involve calculations plotting information from an article/ written text identifying trends, explaining or synthesising relationships between two graphs, or two or more variables reading the overall shape or trend of a graph interpreting time/distance graphs. They read or construct them as a picture of what happened, for example - interpreting when the line goes up as going uphill - going back to the starting point to reach "home".

At Year 4 most students can read the information on a simple graph. Pie graphs may be more difficult than bar or line graphs. At Year 8 many students can extrapolate information from a simple line graph. At Year 10 most students are reasonably successful at converting a straight-forward table to a graph. When making decisions about students' interpretation of graphs, it is important to also consider their familiarity with the context. Lack of knowledge about the context may affect their ability to interpret the graph.

Variables what are they?

In graphs and tables the components that are being compared or measured are called variables. For example, if the question is
How does shadow length vary during a day? - the length of the shadow is one variable, and the time of day is the other.

It is often useful to describe variables as either dependent or independent. The dependent variables are what can be seen to be changing in relation to the particular levels of the independent variables. In the above example

the independent variable is the time of day the length of the shadow is the dependent variable as it depends upon the time of day.

In many instances, however, there is no obvious connection of this type between the variables. In other situations we are interested in how the many variables interact with each other. There are 4 main types of variables

categoric variable described by a word label, not a number, e.g., different brands of paper towel ordered variable categoric variables that can be put in order, e.g., cool, warm, hot discrete variable described by whole numbers only, e.g., 1, 2, 3 teaspoons continuous variable described by any number or part number, e.g., 35.5.

An investigation can have any combination of variables. This is defined by the question. Variables which are subject to some sort of random, statistical errors are known as random variables. Most variables in real investigations are of this type (and are usually just referred to as variables).

Constructing tables
Purposes
Tables are

an organiser for an investigation a way of presenting data in a report an organiser to assist comprehension and thinking.

For investigations with no numerical data it is usually better to use a table to present the data. A table with numerous variables can be broken down into smaller tables that look at each variable separately. The interaction between the various variables can then be explored.

Structure

The independent variables (if they have been identified) go in the left hand columns, the dependent variables on the right.

The independent variable

Type of paper towel

Amount of water absorbed (ml)

The dependent variable

Any column heading should have all the information needed to define the table's meaning. A categoric variable should include a description of the class. A discrete or continuous variable should identify units and any multipliers (e.g., hundreds of people, millions of dollars, kilometres). A title summarises what the table is showing. When investigating, the order of the entries is arbitrary. When reporting results, they should be sorted into an order.

Sometimes it is better to put data into bands, e.g., < 10 years, 10-15 years, 16-20 years this makes it more manageable, and easier to see trends and patterns.

What a table can tell you

A table helps organise information so it is easier to see patterns and relationships. If a variable is continuous the table reveals a lot more information. It may show the range, interval, and number of readings. Tables with multiple variables can provide a lot of information. They can be read by selecting and controlling factors to search for patterns in the data.

Limitations

It can be difficult to see numerical relationships and patterns. A graph may make these clearer. When clumping information into bands, there is no indication of how many are in each category.

Constructing graphs
Purposes
Graphs are

a way of exploring the relationships in data a way of displaying and reporting data, making it easier to report patterns and relationships, shapes of distributions, and trends.

Structure
Any graph used to report findings should show

the significant features and findings of the investigation in a fair and easily read way the underlying structure of an investigation in terms of the relationships between and within the variables the units of measurement the number of readings (though sometimes these will be in the accompanying text) the range and interval of readings, where appropriate.

It is good practice (but only a convention) to put the dependent variable on the horizontal (x) axis and the independent on the vertical (y) axis.

Bar graphs
Bar graphs should be used for categoric, ordered, and discrete variables. If the number of units in a discrete variable is large it may be displayed as a continuous variable.

Line graphs
Line graphs should be used for continuous variables.

Pie graphs
Pie graphs (sometimes called pie or circle charts) are used to show the parts that make up a whole. They can be useful for comparing the size of relative parts. Because it is difficult to compare different circle graphs, and often hard to compare the angles of different sectors of the pie, it is sometimes better to choose other sorts of graphs.

Histograms
Use histograms when y-axis gives the frequency of, or occurrences for continuous data that has been sorted into groups, for example, 20-24 metres. All bars are usually of equal width. They can be turned into line graphs by connecting the middle of the top section of each vertical bar. Histograms are not joined up bar graphs and should not be used for categoric data (unless the number of units in each group is large).

What a graph can tell you

On a graph you get an overall shape of a variable or the relationships between variables. A line graph represents a numerical or mathematical relationship and so has more information "buried" in it than other graphs. Line graphs can sometimes be used to make predictions for values that were not measured, by interpolating or extrapolating the trend, or by looking at the shape.

Limitations

Graphs can tell you a lot about the design of an investigation, but they don't tell you everything. For example, they don't usually tell you which variables were controlled, the sample size, or the method of measurement. So there are lots of questions to ask to find out about validity and reliability, and also about the actual context of the investigation. The scales on the axes can be stretched or shrunk to emphasise one side of a relationship or to make a point that may not be justified by the data. A graph implies a relationship but not necessarily a cause. For example, a graph may show that houses cost less in March than they did in February, but it does not show why this happened. We may infer it is because the interest rates have gone up.

Interpreting tables and graphs

Gott and Duggan identified layers of complexity to reading, interpreting, and analysing data shown in tables and graphs. These include

reading off particular data from points on the table or graph (easy) selecting sections of relevant data from complex data sets (more complex) identifying and interpreting patterns within different types of data (most complex).

A study of 12 and 14 year olds found that individual students noticed the patterns of line graphs in different ways. Their responses were grouped into five categories. How students interpreted line graphs Category No pattern Description Example of student response

Numerical patterns

Identified numerical patterns generated from one or both axes. These were irrelevant to the graphs' "messages". Some students were distracted from generalising about the relationships by obvious numerical patterns. Described the shape or direction of the line. These students did not relate this shape to what the axes represented.

The numbers if put in order go even, odd, odd, even and so on.

Graphical patterns

It goes down and then back up.

Unrelated trends in variable

Described a general trend in the separate variables but did not relate these to one another, or described a trend in one variable but not the other. Were able to generalise a relationship between dependant and independent variables. Prior experience of the context appeared to be a factor in being able to make generalisations.

The length of the shadow decreased.

Generalised relationships between variables

The higher the ball was dropped from the higher it bounced back.

Key questions to ask

The questions below

assist students to critique their own and others' tables and graphs provide useful teaching points for teachers as they plan for next learning

Teachers need to consider the age of their students and reword at an appropriate level.
Questions

Is the information presented appropriately for the design of the investigation? What does the table or graph not tell us about the design of the investigation? What does the information in the table or graph tell us? (Are there any patterns in the data?) What does the data shown not tell us that might invalidate our interpretation? Do the patterns suggest an association, a difference, or a change between the variables? Can we use the pattern in the data to predict and generalise? (This includes being aware of the limitations of the presentation of the data.) Are there alternative interpretations for the pattern of the data? Might other factors be causing the pattern? Have the limitations of the data been clearly identified?

Adapted from Gott and Duggan (2003)

Implications for teaching

Construction

Teach not only the agreed conventions, but also the reasons for these. Students are more likely to include titles and name the axes if they understand their purpose. Support students to think about the most appropriate type of table or graph to present their data. Assist students to select an appropriate scale for their data. Younger students may benefit from physically representing data with props, including themselves. Interactive whiteboards, Excel spreadsheets, graphic calculators and other forms of ICT have been used successfully by some teachers for developing skills in constructing graphs. Some computer programmes can be used to generate graphs. Discussion is an important part of using these props and tools. Develop the vocabulary to describe parts of tables and graphs.

Interpretation

Assist students to investigate the story the table or graph tells. Give students practice in investigating the relationships presented in tables and graphs, and making inferences from them. Teach students to break a graph into sections, read separately, and then reconstruct to tell the story. Encourage students to decide what other information they need to know before they can make decisions based on the data represented. Develop vocabulary that describes and compares.

Possible progressions in teaching about graphs

Progressions in constructing and interpreting graphs should be used with caution. Students' skill levels are likely to be influenced by

their familiarity with the context they are working in the complexity of the context they are working in the complexity of the data the complexity of the construction of the graph.

The following chart does, though, provide some useful guidelines.

Construction

Interpretation

1.

With support: Construct simple graphs Provide a title and name the axes

Read data from marked points Describe a pattern shown on the graph

2.

Independently: Construct simple bar graphs Construct simple line graphs

Read data from any points

when

given the axes.

Describe a relationship represented in the graph

Recognise and give a simple explanation for an inconsistency in the data shown on the graph 3.
With support, select appropriate graph and scale Describe relationships between variables, including dependent and independent if relevant Identify and explain anomalous results Interpret information from a graph Infer unknown values by using the shape of the graph to predict a continuing pattern

Plot two (or more) sets of data on the same axis.

With support, use the patterns on a graph as evidence. 4.

Select appropriate graph and scale Know when and how to draw a line of best fit. Make inferences and predictions from graphs, and justify Reach conclusions consistent with graphical evidence. Use patterns and relationships represented on graphs to make judgements

Independently construct a range of more complex graphs

Critique others' interpretations of graphs by evaluating the information shown in a graph and how it is represented.

Graphs are pictures that help us understand amounts. These amounts are called data. There are many kinds of graphs, each having special parts.

A circle graph is shaped like a circle. It is divided into fractions that look like pieces of pie, so sometimes a circle graph is called a pie graph. Many times the fractional parts are different colors and a key explains the colors. Click on the word "circle" to see a circle graph.

You must click on the underlined word "circle" to go to the next page.

A bar graph uses bars to show data. The bars can be vertical (up and down), or horizontal (across). The data can be in words or numbers.

Click on the word "bar" to see a bar graph. You must click on the underlined word "bar" to go to the next page.

A picture graph uses pictures or symbols to show data. One picture often stands for more than one vote so a key is necessary to understand the symbols. Click on the word "picture" to see a picture graph. You must click on the underlined word "picture" to go to the next page.

A histogram is a special kind of bar graph. The data must be shown as numbers in order. Click the word "histogram" to see a histogram. You must click on the underlined word "histogram" to go to the next page.

A line graph shows points plotted on a graph. The points are then connected to form a line. Click on the word "line" to see a line graph. You must click on the underlined word "line" to go to the next page.

Since you know about the different types of graphs, lets do some practice.

Click on the correct answer to tell what kind of graph is shown.

Circle Line Bar Picture Histogram

Circle Line Bar Picture Histogram

Circle Line Bar Picture Histogram

Click on the correct answer to show what kind of graph is shown.

Circle Line Bar Picture Histogram

Click on the correct answer to show what kind of graph is shown.

Circle Line Bar Picture Histogram

Now you know all about graphs. Happy graphing!

Types of Graphs
1.1 LINE GRAPHS
Comparing various sets of data can be complicated, but line graphs make it easy. The plotted peaks and dips on the grid allow you to monitor and compare improvement and decline. Scientists use line graphs all the time, as do all types of professionals and students. Learn more about line graphsthe most popular type of graph.

Line Graphs

Line graphs are the most popular types of graphs, because they are simple to create and easy to understand. They organize and present data in a clear manner and show relationships between the data. They are used for personal, educational, and professional reasons. Particularly popular in the fields of science and statistics, they can also forecast the results of data that is not yet gathered.

While line graphs and bar graphs share the same purpose, line graphs display a change in direction, while bar graphs display a change in magnitude. Line graphs are used to display the comparison between two variables which are plotted on the horizontal x- and vertical y-axes of a grid. The x-axis usually represents measures of time, while the y-axis usually represents percentage or measures of quantity. Therefore, line graphs are commonly used as time series graphs that show differences in direction. For instance, you can learn about the production of cars in the year 1960 by plotting the time variable (in this case, the months of the year) along the x-axis and the number of cars built in each month along the y-axis. After plotting, you draw a continuous line connecting the points on the grid. The result is a visual representation of the peaks and dips of car production throughout the months of 1960. You can similarly plot the number of cars produced in the years of 1961 and 1962 on the same graph. Thus, you can easily compare multiple relationships.

1.2 BAR GRAPHS

Pleasing to the eyes, bar graphs compare data in a simple format consisting of rectangular bars. With a few varieties to choose from, settling on the right bar graph might be confusing. Should you go with a horizontal, vertical, double or group bar graph? Read on to find out.

Bar Graphs

Bar graphs are used to present and compare data. There are two main types of bar graphs: horizontal and vertical. They are easy to understand, because they consist of rectangular bars that differ in height or length according to their value or frequency. These types of graphs serve the same purpose as line graphs: they represent time series data. However, bar graphs display a change in magnitude, and not in direction like line graphs. A horizontal bar graph consists of an x-axis, and a vertical bar graph consists of a y-axis. The numbers on the axes are known as the scales. Each bar is represents a numeric or categorical variable. Vertical bar graphs are best used for the comparison of time series data and frequency distribution. Horizontal bar graphs are particularly useful when category labels are long; vertical bar graphs do not provide much space for text labels. Horizontal and vertical bar graphs may exist in several forms. Double and group bar graphs, whether vertical or horizontal, are used to compare data about the same location or things. These graphs make it possible to compare several features at once. However, they can become puzzling if they contain too many sets of data. While double and group bar graphs are very popular, other types of less popular bar graphs include age pyramid graphs, stacked bar graphs, and dot graphs.

1.3 PICTOGRAPHS
You first encounter pictographs during childhood and bump into them all through lifeat school, work, and all over magazines and on TV. These diagrams, which use small picture symbols to compare information, are a media favorite; statisticians, though, do not share the sentiment. Find out why, and learn more about the uses of pictographs.

Pictographs
Pictographs, also called pictograms, are diagrams that show and compare data by using picture symbols. Each of these symbols corresponds to a specific quantity and is repeated a number of times. The media often uses pictographs to compare trends; in a magazine, you may see a pictograph comparing the number of nurses in the different counties of Texas. In this case, tiny human figures may represent the nurses, with each figure symbolizing 50 nurses, for instance. Schools use them, as well, in order to train students in mathematics and other subjects in an enjoyable way. Elementary level students often encounter pictographs in their textbooks. These types of graphs are also popularly used by charity organizations to track fund drives. The best example of this is the picture of the thermometer displayed by these organizations. The thermometer represents the total goal amount and its red stripes symbolize the collected donations. While pictographs are easy to understand, they can be misleading because they provide a general representation. Therefore, they are not commonly used by statisticians and scientists who work with very precise measurements. It is virtually impossible to accurately display the difference between $0.56, $0.61, $11.99 and $12.32 through picture symbols on the same pictograph, for example. Pictographs would be unreliable for this purpose. Sometimes the media takes advantage of the potential unreliability of pictographs and intentionally use them to exaggerate or downplay specific data, in order to influence public opinion on an issue.

1.4 PIE CHARTS

Simple to make and simple to understand, a pie chart is a popular form of data comparison, consisting of a circle that is split into parts. When should you use pie charts, and when should you not? Learn about their advantages and disadvantages, and get some tips on making pie charts.

Pie Charts

Pie charts are easy to make, easy to read, and very popular. They are used to represent categorical data or values of variables. They are basically circles that are divided into segments or categories which reflect the proportion of the variables in relation to the whole. Percentages are used to compare the segments, with the whole being equal to 100%. To make a pie chart, draw a circle with a protractor. Then, convert the measures of the variables into percentages, and divide the circle accordingly. It is best to order the segments clockwise from biggest to smallest, so that the pie chart looks neat and the variable are easy to compare. It is also recommended to write percentage and category labels next to each segment, so that users are not required to refer to the legend each time they want to identify a segment. Pie charts are popular types of graphs, but they do have disadvantages that limit their use. For this reason, scientists are not fans of pie charts. First of all, pie charts with too many segments look very messy and are difficult to understand; therefore it is best to use pie charts when there are less than five categories to be compared. Further, if the values of the categories are very close, the

pie chart would be difficult to decipher because the segments would be too close in size. Variations of pie charts include the polar area diagrams and cosmographs.

1.5 COSMOGRAPHS
A cosmograph is a type of chart that shows comparisons. In doing so, it makes life and work easier. If you want to prepare an input-output model for your organization, or compare the features of a geographical region through a simple visual, cosmographs come in handy. Find out how a cosmograph can help you. Cosmographs are variations of pie charts. Like pie charts, cosmographs are types of graphs that provide information about components, in relation to a whole. However, cosmographs are not as numerical as pie charts. There are different uses for cosmographs. A cosmograph is commonly used to monitor finances. In this context, it is used to track the input and output of a business or organization. Government agencies, for instance, use cosmographs when they want to make a visual presentation about the money that entered the agency and how the amounts were used. Components of input, or income, are listed on the left side of the cosmograph, and components of output, or expenditure, are listed on the right side. The size of each component on a cosmograph corresponds to its value. Larger dollar amounts mean physically larger components. Besides monetary value, an input-output cosmograph can deal with quantity or percentage. A cosmograph can also be used to show a comparison between geographical regions. Publications frequently feature cosmographs that use different colors to provide information about regions, in respect to a whole. An example of this type of cosmograph is an illustration of the US map with each state in blue, red, or purple, reflecting the dominant political party.

1.6 ORGANIZATIONAL CHARTS

These diagrams represent the relationships between the different positions and ranks of a company through a series of boxes that go from top to bottom and side to side. Not only does an organizational chart add order and structure to an organization, but it also shows if changes are needed. Get more information on organizational charts.

Organizational Chart
Organizational charts, also called organization charts or org charts, are diagrams that reveal the overall structure of the workforce of a company. Through an organizational chart, the formal indirect or direct relationships between the positions in a company are presented. The chart also shows how different departments are connected. Organizational charts are types of graphs that depict four types of relationships: line, lateral, staff, and functional. Line relationships exist between superiors and subordinates. Lateral relationships exist between different departments of similar rank. Staff relationships exist between a managerial assistant and a line manager. Functional relationships exist between a specialist and a line manager. An organizational chart is usually shaped like a pyramid, with the President or Chief Officer in the top rectangle and levels of subordinates in descending rectangles according to rank listed below. Each rectangle size corresponds to the level of authority. Thus, superiors have larger rectangles than subordinates. Peers have equally sized rectangles. Solid lines between rectangles signify a direct relationship, and dashed lines symbolize an indirect relationship. Arrows represent the direction of communication flow between the components of organizational charts.

An organizational chart has its advantages. It promotes structure in an organization and defines the roles of the management. It also reveals the parts of a company that need improvement and possibly more or less employees. An organization chart also has disadvantages. It does not reveal anything about the managerial style. Moreover, organizational charts needs to be changed every time an employee leaves or joins the company.

1.7 FLOW CHARTS

When projects seem overbearing and processes seem complex, flow charts can save the day by break things down into smaller steps and giving you a clearer idea of the overall process. Shapes are typically used to represent the components of a flow chart. Find out what these shapes represent and learn more about flow charts.

Flow Charts

Flow charts are types of graphs that display a schematic process. Contemporary flow charts are modeled after the logic behind early computer games. Businesses often use them to visually depict all the stages of a project. Therefore, individuals working on a project refer to a flow chart to see the breakdown of the process and understand the whole picture. A flow chart can effectively be used as a training tool for employees who are being introduced to a new project. It also helps in locating and correcting errors in a project. Even though flow chart use is usually linked to the field of business, a flow chart can be used for any purpose that involves a cross-functional process. It can even be used to show driving directions from one location to another. A flow chart consists of start points, end points, inputs, outputs, and routes which are commonly represented by basic symbols that are labeled. Ovals represent start and end points. Rectangles represent the steps of a process, and diamonds represent decisions. Diamonds have two routes stemming from them; one is a true or yes route and the other is a false or no route. Circles stand for operations; arrow-shaped figures stand for transportation, while triangles represent storage, and squares stand for inspection. Arrows linking symbols signify the sequence of a process. While most flow charts use shapes as symbols, others use graphics instead.