Lesson 8: Presentation of Data

PREPARED BY: TAN, EMMANUEL B. LPT.

Learning Outcome(s): Use SPSS for data presentation.

Lesson Outline:

1. Familiarize about the different measures of central tendency

2. Present and interpret the data in tabular and graphical form
3. Use SPSS for data presentation
4. Research Test

CONTENT/ BOOK

DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS

One of the most frequently used procedures in SPSS is descriptive statistics. Use this procedure to
get an idea of what your data would look like, because it intends to describe the main features or the
summary of the information you have collected. Some of those features that are often used to describe
the data you gathered are measures of centran tendency (mean, median, and mode) and measures of
variability or dispersion (standard deviation, minimum and maximum values, kurtosis, and skewness).
Descriptive statistics provides summaries that may be sufficient by themselves for a particular study or
may form the basis of a more extensive statistical analysis as in inferential statistics. (it will be discussed
comprehensively in Module 9).

MEASURES OF CENTRAL TENDENCY

You often hear the terms ‘’average’’ or ‘’typical.’’ While they may point to something familiar in
ordinary language, this is not the case in statistics, as the terms may mean differently based on
appropriateness. As such, while the mean, median, and mode may be the ‘’average’’ or the typical.’’
they may be used only in particular instances; hence, it shall be used appropriately to describe data.

The mode is the value that occurs most often in the given data set. The median, on the other hand,
is the middle value in a set of numbers or data arranged in order of magnitude. The mean is basically the
average value of all the numbers (i.e., the sum of all values divided by the total number of values)

You have learned from module 1 about the different levels of measurement. Each of the
measures of central tendency shall be used with appropriate measure. The mode is the only appropriate
measure for nominal data; the median is appropriate for ordinal ones; and the mean is used
for interval/ratio variables (although some outliers are potentially problematic where the median is
used). In a normal distribution, the mean, median, and mode are all the same.

USING SPSS IN PRESENTING THE DATA

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Effective Use of Tables and Figures in Research Papers

Research papers are often based on copious amounts of data that can be summarized and easily
read through tables and graphs. When writing a research paper, it is important for data to be presented
to the reader in a visually appealing way. The data in figures and tables, however, should not be a
repetition of the data found in the text. There are many ways of presenting data in tables and figures,
governed by a few simple rules. An APA research paper and MLA research paper both require tables and
figures, but the rules around them are different. When writing a research paper, the importance of
tables and figures cannot be underestimated. How do you know if you need a table or figure? The rule
of thumb is that if you cannot present your data in one or two sentences, then you need a table.

Using Tables

Tables are easily created using programs such as Excel. Tables and figures in scientific papers are
wonderful ways of presenting data. Effective data presentation in research papers requires
understanding your reader and the elements that comprise a table. Tables have several elements,
including the legend, column titles, and body. As with academic writing, it is also just as important to
structure tables so that readers can easily understand them. Tables that are disorganized or otherwise
confusing will make the reader lose interest in your work.

 Title: Tables should have a clear, descriptive title, which functions as the “topic sentence” of the
table. The titles can be lengthy or short, depending on the discipline.
 Column Titles: The goal of these title headings is to simplify the table. The reader’s attention
moves from the title to the column title sequentially. A good set of column titles will allow the
reader to quickly grasp what the table is about.
 Table Body: This is the main area of the table where numerical or textual data is located.
Construct your table so that elements read from up to down, and not across.

The placement of figures and tables should be at the center of the page. It should be properly
referenced and ordered in the number that it appears in the text. In addition, tables should be set apart
from the text. Text wrapping should not be used. Sometimes, tables and figures are presented after the
references in selected journals.

Using Figures

Figures can take many forms, such as bar graphs, frequency histograms, scatterplots,
drawings, maps, etc. When using figures in a research paper, always think of your reader. What is the
easiest figure for your reader to understand? How can you present the data in the simplest and most
effective way? For instance, a photograph may be the best choice if you want your reader to understand
spatial relationships.

 Figure Captions: Figures should be numbered and have descriptive titles or captions. The
captions should be succinct enough to understand at the first glance. Captions are placed under
the figure and are left justified.
 Image: Choose an image that is simple and easily understandable. Consider the size, resolution,
and the image’s overall visual attractiveness.
  Additional Information: Illustrations in manuscripts are numbered separately from tables.
Include any information that the reader needs to understand your figure, such as legends.

Common Errors in Research Papers

Effective data presentation in research papers requires understanding the common errors
that make data presentation ineffective. These common mistakes include using the wrong type of figure
for the data. For instance, using a scatterplot instead of a bar graph for showing levels of hydration is a
mistake. Another common mistake is that some authors tend to italicize the table number.
Remember, only the table title should be italicized. Another common mistake is failing to attribute the
table. If the table/figure is from another source, simply put “Note. Adapted from…” underneath the
table. This should help avoid any issues with plagiarism.

Using tables and figures in research papers is essential for the paper’s readability. The reader is
given a chance to understand data through visual content. When writing a research paper, these
elements should be considered as part of good research writing. APA research papers, MLA research
papers, and other manuscripts require visual content if the data is too complex or voluminous. The
importance of tables and graphs is underscored by the main purpose of writing, and that is to be
understood.

INSTRUMENTATION AND STATISTICAL TREATMENT

In any type of quantitative research design, you will always need an instrument to gather data
from your study. Research instruments are tools that measure variables in the study and are designed
to obtain data on a topic of interest from the subjects of research. Many instruments in measuring
different variables are now available online. But in this module, you will learn to develop your own
research instrument. The process of developing an instrument as well as the conditions under which the
instrument will be used is called instrumentation.

A research instrument has the following characteristics: validity, reliability, and

objectivity. VALIDITY pertains to the defensibility of the inferences formulated by researchers from the
collection of data through the use of the instrument. Validity is established using a panel of experts and
a field test. The type of validity (coherent, construct, criterion, and face) to use depends on the
objectives of the study. A reliable instrument gives consistent results whenever being
used. Objectivity refers to the absence of subjective judgments in the research instrument. A valid and
reliable instrument has undergone the process of checking by experts, pilot testing, and item analysis. A
research instrument having these characteristics is a good instrument to use in a research.

Generally, there are three types of research instruments: cognitive, aptitude, and
affective. A cognitive research instrument measures intellectual processes such as problem solving,
analyzing, and reasoning. EXAMPLES of Cognitive research instruments are achievement tests and
conceptual understanding tests. Aptitude research instruments, on the on the other hand, measure
mental ability and are for predicting future performance of the subject. EXAMPLES are process skills
tests, critical thinking tests, verbal reasoning tests, numerical reasoning tests, and mechanical reasoning
tests. The affective research instrument assesses one's feelings, attitudes, beliefs, interests, personality,
and values. This type of research instrument is usually expressed in the Likert scale, semantic differential
scale. Thurstone scale, Guttmant scale, and rating scale. Examples of this research instrument are
behavior-rating scales, product-rating scales, attitude rating scales, and interest inventory scales.

Instrument development begins with deciding what type of research instrument that you will
use in the study. In designing your own research instruments, ensure that you should start with a
statement about the objectives of the research study, review existing instruments with similar variables,
how the data will be used, the confidentiality of the data, how long it will take for respondents to
answer the interview or survey, the language appropriate to age group, and that every question that
helps you answer the research questions and questionnaires should use appropriate scales. You may
also ask for demographic information such as gender or age, if relevant, but don't ask for so much detail
that it would be possible to identify people. You should remember that in constructing
your instrument, the number of items should be twice the target number of items, because after item
analysis, you will still have to delete weak items.

The next step is to find experts in the field who will validate the content of your instrument. It is also
necessary to have your instrument checked by a language editor for face validation. CONTENT
VALIDATION pertains to the conceptual content of the instrument, whereas face validation refers to the
structure and language used in the study. Revise the instrument according to the comments and
suggestions given by the content and face validators.

After the content and face validation, you are now ready to PILOT test your instrument. You should
bear in mind that the actual number of respondents should double the number of your target
respondents in the study to increase the validity and reliability of your instrument. During pilot testing,
you will also determine the average time the respondents took to answer the instrument. Respondents
can also comment on the readability of your instrument.
 If applicable, after collecting data from the pilot test, you can now use statistical tests to check the
reliability of your instrument. ITEM ANALYSIS is one way to check the reliability of your
instrument. ITEM ANALYSIS is a statistical technique that measures the effectiveness of a research
instrument. DIFFICULTY INDEX pertains to the proportion of students who answered the test item
correctly, whereas DISCRIMINATION INDEX refers to how well an assessment differentiates between
high scorers and low scorers. This means that you expect the high-performing students to select the
correct option more often than low-performing ones. Item analysis is being done if the instrument is in
the form of a multiple choice wherein there is a correct answer. The formulas in computing the difficulty
and discrimination indices are given in the next paragraphs.

The formula in computing for the difficulty index is p=NP / N, where P is the difficulty index, Np is the
number of test takers who got the item correctly, and N is the total number of test takers in the group.
As a rule of thumb, if the item difficulty index is more than 0.75, the item is easy; but if the difficulty
index is below 0.25, the item is difficult. Items with difficulty indices of 0.75 and above and those with
difficulty indices of 0.25 and below need to be replaced or revised. All the rest are good items.

DISCRIMINATION INDEX HAS THE FORMULA d=U p - Lp , WHERE d is the discrimination

index,
------
U
Up and Lp are the number of test takers in the upper and lower groups who got the item correctly,
and U is the total number of test takers in upper group. In getting the upper and lower, you must
arrange the sores in increasing order and then get the upper 27 % and the lower 27 % to represent the
upper and lower groups respectively. A discrimination index of 0.30 and above is a good item. EXAMINE
THE FOLLOWING EXAMPLE :

Twenty-eight test takers got the correct answer for a certain item in a test. Fifty people took
the test. Assume that 12 test takers in the upper group and seven test takers in the lower group got
the item correctly.

COMPUTE FOR THE DIFFICULTY AND DISCRIMINATION INDICES FOR THE TEST ITEM. IS THE ITEM A
GOOD ONE OR NOT? EXPLAIN.

To compute for the difficult index, simply substitute the given to the formula

p=Np 28
-------- . So, p = 28 --------
N 50
 TO COMPUTE FOR THE DISCRIMINATION INDEX, YOU NEED TO DETERMINE THE UPPER AND
LOWER GROUPS BY ARRANGING THEIR TOTAL SCORE IN INCREASING MANNER, AND THEN GET THE
UPPER 27 % AND THE LOWER 27 %. IN THIS CASE, BECAUSE THE TOTAL NUMBER OF TEST TAKERS IS 50,
27 % OF 50 IS 13. 5, WHICH WHEN ROUNDED OFF IS EQUAL TO 15. THEREFORE, THERE ARE 14 TEST
TAKERS IN THE UPPER AND LOWER GROUP. ACCORDING TO THE PROBLEM, 12 TEST TAKERS IN THE
UPPER GROUP AND SEVEN IN THE LOWER GROUP GOT THE ITEM CORRECTLY. SO BY SUBSTITUTING THE
VALUES TO THE FORMULA
d = Up - Lp d = 12 - 7
---------- , you will get --------------- = 0.36
u 14

With a difficulty index of 0.56 and a discrimination index of 0.36, you can say that the item is good
and is worth to be retained in the test.

While the formulas for difficulty and discrimination indices are easy to use, in cases where you will
be computing for many items, it is more convenient to use Microsoft Excel in computing indices.

ESSENTIAL LEARNING
Research results must be prepared in a very organized way,
as this is currently one of the crucial aspects of the research
process. The use of SPSS software helps the researcher is easily
creating charts and graphical illustrations that summarize the
results or findings of the research work. A researcher must be able
to organize his or her data succinctly using this technology.