The Structure of Matter All matter on the earth and that is in and around it is classified as being either a gas,

a solid, or a liquid. Element matter consists of only one type of atom, its smallest particle. A molecule (two or more elements) is considered as the smallest part of a compound. Subatomic particles are called protons, neutrons, or electrons. The "atomic number" column indicates the number of protons within each nucleus. The "atomic weight" column not only lists each atom's relationship to oxygen, but when the atomic number is subtracted from its weight, the number of neutrons may also be determined. As an example, find atomic number 29 in the table. This reveals that a copper atom has 29 protons in its nucleus, and for balance, 29 electrons in orbit. These electrons that are 2000 times lighter remain in orbit around the nucleus due to the law of attraction that states that unlike charges (positive protons, negative electrons) attract. The electrons normally remain spaced due to the fact that like charges repel. For copper, if you check the number of electrons in each shell and count the total electrons, adding 2 + 8 + 18 + 1 should equal 29, the same as the atomic number. Now, subtract 29 from the atomic weight. This should indicate that a copper atom has 34 neutrons in its center as well as the 29 protons. The copper "K" shell is full with 2 electrons. The "L" ring is full with 8, and the "M" orbit is full with 18. If there was no "N" shell, copper would be stable and act as an insulator, but there is one electron in the "N" shell indicating that copper's valence ring is less than half full or unstable. These unstable atoms are considered as being conductors. Check other atoms such as gold, silver, and aluminum. Would these make good conductors? Yes, even though aluminum has more valence electrons and is not as unstable. Other materials, due to cost, are not often used. Copper, in our economy, is the most used conductor. Current Loose electrons in the valence shell of an unstable conductor can be disturbed, or "bumped," from their orbit by light, heat, or electromotive energy. When this happens, that atom is then positively charged (one less electron), and becomes a positive ion. If the loose electron travels to another atom, the new atom is now negatively charged (one additional electron) and it becomes a negative ion. If this continues from atom to atom, current (electron migration) occurs. Even though actual electron travel is slow, the energy, or "bumping," moves at the speed of light (186,000 miles per second). When electrical behavior was first discovered, it was thought that the positive charge moved. This convention changed as more was learned about the electron. Today, both conventional current and electron flow theories exist. With either one, the circuit result is the same; only the direction of flow changes with the circuit explanation. Most technicians utilize electron flow for their circuit understanding. The measurement of traveling electrons passing a given point in one second determines charge density. When 6.24 1018 electrons pass, one coulomb of charge is produced. For other measurements, the charge is equal to the number of electrons divided by this coulomb quantity. For example, if 3,120,000,000,000,000,000 electrons pass a point in one second, then we could say that one-half charge exists. To prove this, place the number of electrons into scientific notation (3.12 1018). Then divide by 6.24 1018, which should equal 0.5. If that number of electrons were to double, then one coulomb of charge would exist. When one coulomb of charge passes a specific point on a conductor in 1 second of time, one ampere (a unit of current) is said to be flowing. Since you will be using ampere current units in your future electrical measurements, you will again need to move decimal points for these subvalues. These exponent multipliers are multiples of 3; therefore, engineering notation will be used. Memorize this information for future use, as you must be able to make quick conversions when working in a lab. With test and measurement equipment, there may not be time for a calculator! The use of the ammeter requires the circuit to be "broken," and the meter inserted in its place to re-complete the circuit. Without a complete circuit, so that the first "bumped" electron will eventually be replaced back to its original atom, current cannot flow! The red (+) and black () leads should follow electron flow polarity. Voltage If positive and negative charges are far apart, such as on battery terminals, and there is no conductor or current path between them, nothing will happen. The law of attraction still applies, however, since the possibility, or potential for current flow is present. This potential exists in a form called voltage. Once a wire or other conducting device provides a complete current path, the potential difference (PD) now turns into action. Attraction results in electromotive force (emf), or pressure, which will "bump" that first electron beginning current flow. The more force, or voltage, the larger the flow. An ammeter placed in a circuit will have an increased reading as voltage is increased, proving that current is directly proportional to voltage. Exponents have multiples of 3 multipliers. As with amperes, voltage units should be memorized, and practice in decimal point moving should be attempted. Voltage units may be measured with test equipment. The voltmeter is always placed across the difference of potential for proper measurement. Unlike the ammeter, you are measuring an existing circuit with current already flowing. The red lead is connected to the positive (+) side of the device, while the black lead is connected to the () negative side. Always use the highest range first to prevent meter damage, and then change scales as needed.

Sometimes, when you are not sure how to place the meter, the circuit drawing, or schematic is first consulted. Schematics draw out on paper the complete current paths and show which devices are in place. They are used to simplify circuit work and make things easier to understand. Conductors Previously, by looking for loose electrons in the valence shell we determined some metals that would serve as conductors. Our next step is to be able to classify them according to how well they do at carrying current. This measurement is called conductance. Notice that copper is second best. A poor conductor offers resistance to electron flow, which affects the metal's conductance. In fact, resistance (R) is inversely proportional to conductance (G) and therefore R = 1/G or G = 1/R. The resistance unit is the ohm, while the unit of conductance is the siemen (S). Use your calculator's 1/x key (reciprocal) to see if 40 millisiemens of conductance will encounter 25 ohms of resistance during current flow. Insulators As previously discussed, insulators consist of stable atoms with full valence shells. Under normal conditions they prevent current flow and protect items from electrical encounters. Any large potential difference such as lightning, very high voltage, etc., can loosen an electron even from a full shell and cause damage to any material. Insulators, therefore, are subject to breakdown when this occurs. Under normal conditions, the dielectric strength of insulator material is sufficient to provide the maximum possible resistance and prevent breakdown. The breakdown voltages of certain insulators are in kilovolts per centimeter. For example, 1.11 cm of glass can be penetrated by more than 1000 volts. Once a "pinhole" is achieved, arcing takes place, which further destroys the material. If the circuit is not protected properly, fire may also occur. With insulator design, breakdown potentials must be researched before materials are selected for use. The Open, Closed, and Short Circuit Because electrons must have a complete path in order for current to flow, any open in a circuit, or in a circuit component, will prevent "bumping" action. Once the open occurs, the PD (voltage) will now be found across that point. When one point in the circuit is accidentally connected to another, a short circuit occurs. A "short" then results in the creation of a larger (least resistance) current path. Many times the short circuit is a damaging, as well as an alternative, path. QUALITY CONTROL

All matter in, on, and around the earth is classified as being either a solid, a liquid, or a gas. An element consists of only one type of atom. The atom is the smallest particle of an element. A molecule (two or more elements) is the smallest part of a compound. An atom's subatomic particles are called protons, neutrons, or electrons. Atomic weight indicates the number of protons and neutrons within that atom's nucleus. Both are 2000 times heavier than the electron. An assigned atomic number relates to the protons within the nucleus. A neutral atom has an equal number of protons (positive charge) and electrons (negative charge), since unlike charges attract, while like charges repel. With an unstable atom that has more electrons than protons, a net negative charge develops, while one with more protons than electrons possesses a net positive charge. Unstable atoms are called ions. Electrons travel in elliptical orbits or shells that extend out from the nucleus. These paths are labeled K through Q. The valence shell or ring is the outer orbit. A total number of electrons or other items may be expressed in scientific notation, which has a base number between 1 and 10 with a power-of-ten multiplier. Engineering notation has a base number greater than 1 with a power-of-ten multiplier that is a multiple of 3. Current is free electron movement. A coulomb of charge contains 6.24 x 1018 electrons. When 1 coulomb passes a point in 1 second, 1 ampere of current is considered as flowing. Current is measured with an ammeter by breaking the current path (series) and inserting the meter. A reading is always made on the highest scale first, while ensuring that lead polarity is correct. Voltage, or electromotive force (emf) is the pressure that causes electrons to be freed (move). Voltage is measured with a voltmeter installed in parallel with the source, or item to be measured. A reading is always made on the highest scale first, while ensuring that lead polarity is correct. A material with low resistance to current flow is called a conductor. High-resistance material is called a resistor, and very highresistance material is considered an insulator. Semiconductor materials are neither insulators nor conductors. The reciprocal of resistance is conductance. Conductance is the measure of how good a conductor is, with its unit of measure being the siemen (S). A circuit must be a complete path for electrons (current) to flow. An circuit prevents this passage, while a short circuit creates a damaging, alternate path.