ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

2. Exchange of gasses takes place within the lungs in the alveoli (only site of gas exchange, other structures passageways 3. Passageways to the lungs purify, warm, and humidify the incoming air 4. Shares responsibility with cardiovascular system Organs of the respiratory System: 1. Nose 2. Pharynx 3. Larynx 4. Trachea 5. Bronchi 6. Lungs-alveoli Anatomy of the Nasal Cavity >Olfactory receptors are located in the mucosa on the superior surface The rest of the cavity is lined with respiratory mucosa a. Moistens air b. Traps incoming foreign particles >Paranasal Sinuses Frontal sinus Sphenoid sinus Ethmoid sinus Maxillary sinus Muscular passage from nasal cavity to larynx Three regions of the pharynx 1. Nasopharynx superior region behind nasal cavity 2. Oropharynx middle region behind mouth 3. Laryngopharynx inferior region attached to larynx The oropharynx and laryngopharynx are common passageways for air and food Auditory tubes enter the nasopharynx Tonsils of the pharynx Pharyngeal tonsil (adenoids) in the nasopharynx

RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
Functions of the respiratory system: 1. Oversees gas exchanges (oxygen and carbon dioxide) between the blood and external environment

 Palatine tonsils in the oropharynx Lingual tonsils at the base of the tongue

Structure of the Larynx Routes air and food into proper channels Plays a role in speech Made of eight rigid hyaline cartilages and a spoon-shaped flap of elastic cartilage (epiglottis) Thyroid cartilage Largest hyaline cartilage Protrudes anteriorly (Adams apple) Epiglottis Superior opening of the larynx Routes food to the larynx and air toward the trachea Vocal cords (vocal folds) Vibrate with expelled air to create sound (speech) Glottis opening between vocal cords Primary Bronchi Formed by division of the trachea Enters the lung at the hilus (medial depression) Right bronchus is wider, shorter, and straighter than left Bronchi subdivide into smaller and smaller branches Lungs Occupy most of the thoracic cavity Apex is near the clavicle (superior portion) Base rests on the diaphragm (inferior portion) Each lung is divided into lobes by fissures

Left lung two lobes Right lung three lobes Pulmonary (visceral) pleura covers the lung surface Parietal Largely a passive process which depends on natural lung elasticity As muscles relax, air is pushed out of the lungs Forced expiration can occur mostly by contracting internal intercostal muscles to depress the rib cage pleura lines the walls of the thoracic cavity Pleural fluid fills the area between layers of pleura to allow gliding

Respiratory tree Division Primary bronchi Secondary bronchi Tertiary bronchi Bronchioli Terminal bronchioli Bronchioles Smallest branches of the bronchi All but the smallest branches have reinforcing cartilage Terminal bronchioles end in alveoli Respiratory Zone Structures Respiratory bronchioli Alveolar duct Alveoli Site of gas exchange Structure of alveoli Alveolar duct Alveolar sac Alveolus Gas exchange

Respiratory membrane (air-blood barrier) Thin squamous epithelial layer lining alveolar walls Pulmonary capillaries cover external surfaces of alveoli Gas Exchange Gas crosses the respiratory membrane by diffusion Oxygen enters the blood Carbon dioxide enters the alveoli Macrophages add protection Surfactant coats gas-exposed alveolar surfaces Events of Respiration Pulmonary ventilation moving air in and out of the lungs External respiration gas exchange between pulmonary blood and alveoli Mechanisms of Breathing Completely mechanical process Depends on volume changes in the thoracic cavity Volume changes lead to pressure changes, which lead to the flow of gases to equalize pressure Inspiration Diaphragm and intercostal muscles contract The size of the thoracic cavity increases External air is pulled into the lungs due to an increase in intrapulmonary volume

Oxygen moves by diffusion towards the area of lower concentration Pulmonary capillary blood gains oxygen Carbon dioxide movement out of the blood Blood returning from tissues has higher concentrations of carbon dioxide than air in the alveoli Pulmonary capillary blood gives up carbon dioxide Blood leaving the lungs is oxygen-rich and carbon dioxide-poor Gas Transport in the Blood Oxygen transport in the blood Inside red blood cells attached to hemoglobin (oxyhemoglobin [HbO2]) A small amount is carried dissolved in the plasma Carbon dioxide transport in the blood Most is transported in the plasma as bicarbonate ion (HCO3) A small amount is carried inside red blood cells on hemoglobin, but at different binding sites than those of oxygen Internal Respiration

Exhalation Largely a passive process which depends on natural lung elasticity As muscles relax, air is pushed out of the lungs Forced expiration can occur mostly by contracting internal intercostal muscles to depress the rib cage External Expiration Oxygen movement into the blood The alveoli always has more oxygen than the blood

Exchange of gases between blood and body cells An opposite reaction to what occurs in the lungs Carbon dioxide diffuses out of tissue to blood Oxygen diffuses from blood into tissue Activity of respiratory muscles is transmitted to the brain by the phrenic and intercostal nerves Neural centers that control rate and depth are located in the medulla The pons appears to smooth out respiratory rate Normal respiratory rate (eupnea) is 1215 respirations per minute Hypernia is increased respiratory rate often due to extra oxygen needs

THE CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM

Circulation Coronary circulation the circulation of blood within the heart. Pulmonary circulation the flow of blood between the heart and lungs. Systemic circulation the flow of blood between the heart and the cells of the body. Blood Complex mixture of cells, water, and various proteins and sugars. Fifty-five percent is plasma (liquid). Forty-five percent is solid. Hematocrit measurement of percentage of red blood cells. Leukocytes 5 types of white blood cells protect against disease. Basophils. Eosinophils. Neutrophils. Lymphocytes. Monocytes.

Circulation pumping of blood through the entire body by the heart. The Heart Covered by the pericardium. Has two sides with two chambers. Blood flows through the heart in one direction. Valves control the blood flow. The cardiac conduction system controls the electrical impulses that cause the heart to contract. Bicuspid (mitral) valve. Tricuspid valve. Pulmonary valve. Aortic valve.

Blood Vessels Three types of blood vessels in body: Arteries: The large blood vessels that lead away from the heart. Their walls are elastic, and smaller branches of the arteries are called arterioles. Veins: They take de-oxygenated blood back to the heart and lungs to be reoxygenated. They have thinner walls than arteries, and have valves within their inner walls, to keep blood moving in one direction. Capillaries: Are delicate, microscopic vessels that are very thin. Oxygen and nutrients can pass through them.

Blood Circulation Three types: Pulmonary Cardiac Systemic Cardiac Circulation De-oxygenated blood flows through the venae cavae (plural) Superior vena cava and Inferior vena cava into the right side of the heart, through to pulmonary artery which divides the blood to each lung, and the branches keep getting smaller and smaller until it reaches the lung capillaries. While the blood is flowing through the lung capillaries, it picks up fresh oxygen, and heads back to the heart via the pulmonary veins. This fresh, oxygen-rich blood goes back to the left side of the heart where it is pumped out to the rest of the body through the aorta. When blood flows out the aorta, it flows through arteries to smaller vessels called arterioles and to smaller vessels called capillaries. At the capillary level, the fresh oxygen is exchanged for carbon dioxide along with other cellular waste products, and the blood begins to return to the heart via the veins. Cardiac Anatomy The heart is a muscular pump, made up of four chambers: two atria (right and left) and two ventricles (right and left) In between the atria (on top) and the ventricles (on the bottom) are valves. On the right side of the heart the valve is called the tricuspid valve. On the left side of the heart the valve is called the mitral valve. Left ventricle is largest and most muscular of heart chambers. The atria and ventricles are separated by a wall of tissue called the septum. The heart has three layers that make it up: the endocardium (inside the heart); the myocardium (middle, muscular layer); and the pericardium, a sac that surrounds the heart.

The pericardium has two layers; the visceral pericardium which adheres to the heart, and the parietal pericardium which lines the outer fibrous coat. The pericardial cavity (lies between the visceral and the parietal pericardium) contains 10 - 15cc of fluid, which lubricates the membrane of the heart as it beats.

Physiology of the Heart Each heartbeat has two phases: systole (contraction) and diastole (relaxation). Diastole occurs when the walls of the ventricle relax, and blood flows into the heart from the venae cavae and the pulmonary veins. Systole occurs after that, as the walls of the right and left ventricles contract to pump blood into the pulmonary artery and the aorta.

Cardiac Conduction System Primary responsibility for initiating impulses comes from the sinoatrial node. Also called the SA node, and the pacemaker of the heart. The electricity produced in the SA Node travels through the atria down through the AV Node, and down through the Bundle of His, and the right & left bundle branches, which depolarizes the ventricles and produces the contraction.