Manuscript submitted on June 28, 2010. This manuscript has been
authored by UT-Battelle, LLC, under contract DE-AC05-00OR22725 with the U.S. Department of Energy. The United States Government retains and the publisher, by accepting the article for publication, acknowledges that the United States Government retains a non-exclusive, paid-up, irrevocable, world-wide license to publish or reproduce the published form of this manuscript, or allow others to do so, for United States Government purposes. Y. Xu, Oak Ridge National Laboratory (ORNL), Oak Ridge, TN, USA, xuy3@ornl.gov. H. Li, The University of Tennessee, Knoxville, TN, USA, hli26@utk.edu. D. T. Rizy, ORNL rizydt@ornl.gov. J. D. Kueck, ORNL, kueckjd@ornl.gov. F. Li, The University of Tennessee, Knoxville, TN, USA, fli6@utk.edu.
Abstract -- Distributed energy resources (DER) with a power electronics inverter interface can provide both active power and nonactive power simultaneously and independently. A decoupled control algorithm of active power and nonactive power is developed based on the instantaneous active power and nonactive power theory. A current limiter is combined to the control algorithm, and it ensures that the inverter is not overloaded. During the normal system operation, the active power has higher priority over the nonactive power so that the energy from a DER can be fully transferred to the grid. Within the inverters capability, nonactive power is provided to the grid as required. With this control algorithm, the inverters capabilities are taken full advantage at all times, both in terms of functionality as well as making use of its full KVA rating. Through the algorithm, the inverters active power and nonactive power are controlled directly, simultaneously, and independently. Several experimental results fully demonstrate the validity and effectiveness of this new control algorithm. As evidenced by the fast dynamic response that results, a DER system with the control algorithm can provide full services to the grid in both steady state and during transient events.
Index Termsactive power control, nonactive power control, current limiter, distributed energy resource I. INTRODUCTION istributed energy resources (DER) are widely used in power systems to supply active power. As an alternative to the traditional centralized synchronous generators, DER has steadily gained higher penetration in the power systems. However, many present DER systems have little to no nonactive power capability. The power electronics interfaces between the DER and the grid are similar to a STATCOM. They both have an inverter to convert dc power to ac power, or vice versa. It has been proven that a STATCOM with energy storage can provide both active and nonactive power for voltage control [1] or enhance its dynamic response [2]. A STATCOM with energy storage at wind power generators can reduce voltage flicker and remove the voltage variation caused by the wind speed fluctuations [3]. Another example is mitigation of the voltage fluctuation generated by arc furnaces using a STATCOM with energy storage [4]. A widely-used control scheme for grid connected inverters is to convert the 3-phase ac system to a 2-phase system using the Park Transformation and then convert to a 2-phase dc system [5]. Another control method is to use genetic and evolutionary algorithms [6]. An instantaneous active power and nonactive power theory [7] is adopted in this paper to perform real-time calculation and control. Instantaneous definitions of active power, nonactive power, active current, nonactive current, voltage root-mean-square (rms) value, and current rms value are defined, which provides the basis of real-time control of DER. A control scheme is proposed in this paper to control the active power (P) and nonactive power (Q) of the DER independently. A current limiter is also developed to ensure that the DER and its interface are not over-loaded. Compared to some other instantaneous power theories and the control algorithms derived from them, the proposed decoupled control algorithm for instantaneous active power and nonactive power can control the inverters active and nonactive power instantaneously and independently. The fast response of the control algorithm ensures that the DER can provide service under different system conditions, both in steady state and during transient events. II. DECOUPLED CONTROL ALGORITHM WITH CURRENT LIMITER A typical system configuration of a DER with an inverter interface is studied in this paper, as shown in Fig. 1. An instantaneous active power and nonactive power theory [7] is adopted to develop the control algorithm for this system. Instantaneous Active and Nonactive Power Control of Distributed Energy Resources with a Current Limiter Yan Xu, Member, IEEE; Huijuan Li, Student Member, IEEE; D. Tom Rizy, Senior Member, IEEE Fangxing Li, Senior Member, IEEE; John D. Kueck, Senior Member, IEEE D 978-1-4244-5287-3/10/$26.00 2010 IEEE 3855
Fig. 1. Parallel connection of a DER with a power electronics inverter. A. DER System Configuration The system configuration of the DER system is shown in Fig. 1. The DER system is connected in parallel with the grid through a coupling inductor L c . The coupling inductor can mitigate the ripples in the DER output current. The connection point is referred to as the point of common coupling (PCC), and the PCC voltage is denoted as v t . The equivalent local load is also connected at the PCC. The rest of the system is simplified as an infinite voltage source with a system impedance of jL s , neglecting the resistance. The DER energy source is connected to the DC link of the inverter with a capacitor C dc . The DER energy source is the active power source, and the capacitor is the nonactive power source of the DER system. The inverter current i c is controlled so that the desired amount of active power and nonactive power is provided from the DER system. The instantaneous values of the PCC voltage and the inverter current are measured and provided to the controller. The controller is developed based on a dSpace real-time control platform. After calculation, pulse width modulation (PWM) signals are sent to the inverter by the controller to turn on or off the power electronics switches. The inverter converts the power on the dc side to ac power with appropriate waveform, frequency, magnitude, and phase angle so that it can be connected and synchronized to the grid. B. Instantaneous Power Theory An instantaneous active power and nonactive power theory [7] is adopted. Consistent with the standard steady- state power definitions, this theory is an extension of the standard definitions and other instantaneous power theories. It defines the instantaneous active current, instantaneous nonactive current, instantaneous active power, and instantaneous nonactive power. It also defines the average power, average active power, average nonactive power, apparent power, apparent active power, and apparent nonactive power. These power definitions are instantaneous values, and functions of time. Similarly, the rms values of voltages and currents are also defined as instantaneous values. The instantaneous active power and nonactive power theory is valid in various power systems, whether single- phase or multi-phase, sinusoidal or non-sinusoidal, periodic or non-periodic, balanced or unbalanced. Considering that the power system in this paper is a three- phase balanced system, the instantaneous power theory is simplified in the following derivation. The DER system shown in Fig. 1 can also be simplified as the single-phase equivalent circuit in Fig. 2, assuming that the three-phase system is balanced. Let v t (t) and v c (t) denote the instantaneous PCC voltage and the inverter output voltage (harmonics are neglected), respectively, where is the phase angle of v c (t) relative to the PCC voltage. : t (t) = 2I t cos(t) (1) : c (t) = 2I c cos(t + o) (2) The rms values of v t (t) and v c (t) are given in (3) and (4), respectively. I t (t) = _ 2 1 ] : t 2 ()J t t- T 2 (3) I c (t) = _ 2 1 ] : c 2 ()J t t- T 2 (4) where T/2 is one half of the period of the voltage. It is the averaging interval used in this paper. In the instantaneous nonactive power theory [7], the averaging interval can be different values depending on the system characteristics. In a sinusoidal system with period T, the averaging interval is usually chosen as kT/2, where k is a positive integer. In this paper, k is chosen as 1, which is the shortest averaging interval so that a fast transient response can be achieved. Different from the standard steady state definitions, V t (t) and V c (t) are instantaneous variables, function of time t. At steady state, they are constant values V t and V c , which are consistent with the standard definitions. Similarly, all the other rms definitions and power definitions are functions of time; therefore, they are valid in both steady state and transients. The current from the DER to the utility is denoted as i c (t): i c (t) = 2 oL c |I c sin(t + o) - I t sin(t)] (5) where is the phase angle between the PCC voltage v t (t) and the inverter current i c (t). The average power of the DER is denoted as P(t): P(t) = 2 1 ] : t ()i c ()J t t- T 2 = v t v c oL c sin (6) The instantaneous active current component of the inverter current i c (t) is defined as, i cu (t) = P(t) v t 2 (t) i c (t). (7) 3856
Fig. 3. Active power and nonactive power control diagram.
Fig. 2. Simplified circuit diagram of a parallel connected DER. The instantaneous nonactive current of the inverter current is defined as, i cn (t) = i c (t) -i cu (t). (8) The i ca (t) and i cn (t) are the active component and the nonactive component of the inverter current i c (t). By controlling these two current components, the active power and the nonactive power of the DER can be controlled independently. The rms values of i ca (t) and i cn (t) are defined as I ca (t) and I cn (t), respectively. I cu (t) = _ 2 1 ] i cu 2 ()J t t- T 2 (9) I cn (t) = _ 2 1 ] i cn 2 ()J t t- T 2 (10) The apparent power S(t) and the average nonactive power Q(t) of the DE are: S(t) = I t (t)I c (t) = v t oL c I t 2 + I c 2 -2I t I c cos o (11) (t) = I t (t)I cn (t) = S 2 (t) - P 2 (t) = v t oL c (I c cos o - I t ) (12) where Q(t) is defined as positive if the inverter injects nonactive power to the utility, and negative if the inverter absorbs nonactive power from the utility. P(t) and Q(t) in (6) and (12) can be approximated by the first terms of the Taylor series if the angle is small, as shown in (13) and (14), P(t) = v t v c oL c o (13) (t) = v t oL c (I t - I c ) (14) C. Feedback Control Algorithm In (13) and (14), assuming the variation of V t can be neglected, i.e., V t is constant, then the average nonactive power Q(t) is proportional to the magnitude of the inverter output voltage v c (t). However, the average active power P(t) is dependent on both the amplitude V c and the phase angle of v c (t). A control scheme is developed accordingly with two feedback control loops. The inner loop controls the nonactive power Q(t) by controlling the amplitude of v c (t), while the outer loop controls the active power P(t) by controlling the phase angle of v c (t). If the active power and nonactive power are the control objects, the inverter current is not a controllable variable. However, the inverter is very sensitive to the current; therefore, to insure that the inverter is not overloaded, a current limiter is developed in the controller. Instead of the active power and the nonactive power of the inverter, the inverter current is the direct control variable. The active current I ca (t) and the nonactive current I cn (t) are control variables instead of P(t) and Q(t). At steady-state, the relationships of I ca (t), I cn (t), P(t), and Q(t) is as follows: P(t) = I t (t)I cu (t) (15) (t) = I t (t)I cn (t) (16) The active power P(t) and nonactive power Q(t) in (13) and (14) can be controlled indirectly by controlling the active current I ca (t) and nonactive current I cn (t) in (15) and (16) directly. The decoupled feedback control diagram is shown in Fig. 3. In the nonactive power control loop, the amplitude of the instantaneous inverter output voltage v c (t) is controlled by the PI controller PI 1 , where I cn * is the reference, I cn is the actual value, and K P1 and K I1 are the proportional gain and integral gain of the PI controller PI 1 . Using the PCC voltage as its reference, the amplitude of the inverter output voltage is modified based on the amount of the nonactive power. The result of this control loop is v * c1 (t), which is in phase with the PCC voltage v t (t), as shown in (17). : c1 - = j1 + K P1 (I cn - - I cn ) +K I1 ] (I cn - - I cn )Jt t 0 [ : t (t) (17) The inverter active power control is realized by controlling the phase angle of the inverter output voltage. Equation (18) describes the active power control loop. The phase angle of v c (t) is controlled by the PI controller PI 2 , where I ca * is the reference, and I ca is the actual value. o - = K P2 (I cu - - I cu ) + K I2 ] (I cu - - I cu )Jt t 0 (18) D. Current Limiter As shown in (15) (18), the active current reference I ca *
and the nonactive current reference I cn * can be calculated according to the preset active power reference and nonactive 3857
Fig. 4. Current hysteresis loop limiter.
Fig. 5. Current limiter flow chart diagram. power reference. To be clear, the active current and nonactive current references calculated from the preset active power and nonactive power references are referred to as the preset references. By adding the current limiter to the controller, the preset active current reference and the nonactive current reference are modified so that the inverter current will not exceed the current limit I c_limit . As shown in Fig. 4, after the inverter current limit value (I c_limit ) is set, the value of the inverter current falls into the three zones: safe zone, transition zone, and over current zone. The transition zone is the band around the current limit I c_limit
with the width of 2threshold. The inverter current is controlled no larger than the I c_limit with a hysteresis loop. When the current increases, it follows the red curve in Fig. 4. When the current enters into the transition zone from the safe zone, the inverter remains the same operation mode as in the safe zone, i.e., the active current and nonactive current are controlled to meet the active power and nonactive power references. It changes from this mode to current limit mode once the current reaches beyond the upper limit of the transition zone, i.e., I c_limit + threshold. When it decreases, it follows the blue curve. When the current enters into the transition zone from the over current zone, the inverter remains in the same operation mode as in the over current zone, i.e., the current is limited below the preset current limit. Once the current decreases below the lower limit of the transition zone, i.e., I c_limit threshold, it changes from current limit mode to active power and nonactive power tracking mode. The hysteresis loop prevents the controller from switching back and forth between two zones when the inverter current is very close to the current limit value. The active current has higher priority than the nonactive current, because providing active power is the DERs main task. When the inverter current exceeds the current limit, the nonactive current is decreased first. The active current is limited only if the active current itself is already larger than the current limit, or the nonactive current is already decreased to its minimum value. The current limiter diagram is shown in Fig. 5. The PCC voltage and inverter current are measured. The active power and nonactive power references are preset, and the preset active current and nonactive current references are calculated according to the active power and nonactive power references. The measured inverter current is compared to the current limit value, and it is determined to be in the safe zone, the transition zone, or the over current zone. If the measured inverter current is smaller than (I c_limit - threshold), it is in the safe zone. The active current and nonactive current references are equal to the preset references calculated based on the active power and nonactive power references. If the measured inverter current is greater than (I c_limit
+threshold), it is in the over current zone. Then the active current is compared to the current limit I c_limit to determine the values of the active current and nonactive current references. Similarly, the active current also has three zones, i.e., the safe zone, the transition zone, and the over current zone. If the active current is in the safe zone, the active current reference is equal to the preset reference, and the nonactive current reference is calculated so that the total inverter current does not exceed the current limit. If the active current is in the transition zone, the active current reference is chosen as the smaller one of the current limit and the preset reference. The nonactive current reference is calculated so that the total inverter current is equal to the current limit. If the active current is in the over current zone, the active current 3858
(a) Active power and reference (b) Nonactive power and reference (c) Active current and reference (d) Nonactive current and reference (e) Inverter current (f) Efficiency of the inverter
Fig. 6. Active power Pref from 10 kW to 50 kW, nonactive power Qref = 10 kVar.
(a) Active power and reference (b) Nonactive power and reference (c) Active current and reference (d) Nonactive current and reference (e) Inverter current (f) Efficiency of the inverter
Fig. 7. Active power Pref from 50 kW to 10 kW, nonactive power Qref = 10 kVar.
reference is equal to the current limit, and the nonactive current is zero (In the experimental results, the minimum nonactive power is set at 10 kVar instead of zero.). If the measured inverter current is between (I c_limit - threshold) and (I c_limit + threshold), it is in the transition zone. Similar to the over current zone, the active current is compared to the current limit, and the active current and nonactive current references are determined accordingly. III. SYSTEM IMPLEMENTATION AND EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS The proposed DER system in Fig. 1 with the instantaneous active power and nonactive power controller has been implemented experimentally. The ac voltage is 480 V (line-to-line rms), the inverter dc link voltage is 800 V. The inverter current is limited to 60 A rms. Four cases have been studied, and the experimental results are illustrated in the following sections. These cases were tested on an actual distribution system at the Distributed Energy Communications & Controls (DECC) Laboratory at Oak Ridge National Laboratory in Oak Ridge, TN. In each case, a step change is applied to the active power or nonactive power reference in order to study the dynamic response of the control method. The inverter efficiency in the following cases is calculated based on the input power on the DC side of the inverter and the input power to the grid at PCC by the inverter. The efficiency includes losses in the capacitor on the inverter DC link, the inverter itself, and the coupling inductor. A. Active Power Reference Increase Case 1: The active power reference P ref has a sudden increase from 10 kW to 50 kW, and the nonactive power reference Q ref is set at 10 kVar. Figs. 6a 6f show the active power, the nonactive power, the inverter active current i ca , the inverter nonactive current i cn , the inverter current i c , and the inverter efficiency. The powers are average values, and the currents are in rms values. The currents are the average of the three phase-to-neutral values. In Fig. 6a, the red waveform is the active power reference, and the blue waveform is the actual active power. In Fig. 6b, the red waveform is the nonactive power reference, and the blue one is the actual value. In Fig. 6c, the red waveform is the active current reference, and the blue one is the actual active current. In Fig. 6d, the red waveform is the nonactive current reference, and the blue one is the actual value. Before the sudden change in the active power reference, the inverter current is below the current limit, and it is in the safe mode. The active current and nonactive current references are the red waveforms in the figures, which are calculated from the P and Q references. The active power and 3859
(a) Active power and reference (b) Nonactive power and reference (c) Active current and reference (d) Nonactive current and reference (e) Inverter current (f) Efficiency of the inverter
Fig. 8. Active power Pref = 20 kW, nonactive power Qref from 20 kVar to 50 kVar.
(a) Active power and reference (b) Nonactive power and reference (c) Active current and reference (d) Nonactive current and reference (e) Inverter current (f) Efficiency of the inverter
Fig. 9. Active power Pref = 20 kW, nonactive power Qref from 50 kVar to 20 kVar.
nonactive power are tracking their references. After the sudden change, the active current reference is increased to above 61 A, and the nonactive current remains the same, as shown in Figs. 6c and 6d. In Fig. 6c, when the inverter current exceeds the current limit (60 A), the current limiter is triggered. The current references are re-calculated based on the current limit so that the total current is limited to 60 A (Fig. 6e). Fig. 6f shows the DER system efficiency. It is higher when the inverter is loaded closer to its rating. B. Active Power Reference Decrease Case 2: As shown in Fig. 7, P ref decreases from 50 kW to 10 kW, and Q ref is set at 10 kVar. When P ref is 50 kW, and Q ref is 10 kVar, the total inverter current exceeds the limit; therefore the inverter operates in the current limit mode. After P ref is decreased to 10 kW, it is out of the current limit mode, and the currents follow the references calculated from P ref
and Q ref . Fig. 7a is the active power and its reference. The actual active power is lower than the reference when P ref = 50 kW, because the inverter is in the current limit mode. The total inverter current is limited to 60 A, and the active current and nonactive current references are calculated based on the preset limit instead of the active power and nonactive power references, as shown in Figs. 7c and 7d. Fig. 7e shows that the inverter current is controlled below the current limit. Fig. 7f shows the inverter efficiency during this case. C. Nonactive Power Reference Increase Case 3: As shown in Fig. 8, P ref is set at 20 kW, and Q ref
increases from 20 kVar to 50 kVar. Similar to Case 1, the current limit is triggered after the current reaches above 60 A. The nonactive current reference is re-calculated so that the total inverter current is controlled at the current limit. Figs. 8a and 8b are the waveforms of the active power and nonactive power. The red waveforms are the references, and the blue waveforms are the actual values of the active power and nonactive power. When the references are 20 kW and 20 kVar, the actual values are tracking the references very well. When the nonactive power reference is increased to 50 kVar, the nonactive power increases until the inverter current reaches the current limit. After the transient, the actual nonactive power is lower than the reference. The active current and nonactive current references are re-calculated based on the current limit, as shown in Fig. 8c and 8d. D. Nonactive Power Reference Decrease Case 4: As shown in Fig. 9, P ref is set at 20 kW, and Q ref
decreases from 50 kVar to 20 kVar. Similar to Case 2, the inverter changes from the current limit mode to the safe zone after the inverter current drops below 60 A. Both the active 3860
current and the nonactive current follows the references calculated from P ref and Q ref . In Figs 9a and 9b, the active power reference and nonactive power reference are 20 kW and 50 kVar, respectively. The inverter current of the total is higher than the current limit; therefore the inerter is operated in the current limit mode. The actual nonactive power is lower than the reference. After the nonactive power reference is decreased to 20 kVar, the inverter is changed to the safe zone so that the actual active power and nonactive power can track the references in this mode. Figs. 9c and 9d show the active current and nonactive current waveforms. When there is a sudden change in the active power or the nonactive power, the other power also go through a transient despite having a fixed reference, as shown in all the four cases. This is because the control algorithm is derived from the linear approximation of the system, and the active power and nonactive power are not 100% decoupled. There is a delay of up to one half of the fundamental period in the phase shift, which also causes some error. The change of the amplitude of the PCC voltage is another reason of the transient in the active power during the nonactive power sudden change as shown in (13) in Section II. IV. CONCLUSION A DER with a power electronics interface can provide both active power and nonactive power simultaneously and independently. A decoupled control of active power and nonactive power is developed based on the instantaneous nonactive power theory. Combining it with a current limiter insures that the inverter is not overloaded. The inverter is controlled so that the active power has higher priority over the nonactive power, and maximum nonactive power is generated within the inverters capability. With this control algorithm, full advantage can be taken of the inverters capabilities at all times, both in terms of functionality as well as making use of its full KVA rating while ensuring that the inverter operates within its current capability to prevent equipment failure with thermal stress. The experimental results demonstrate the validity and effectiveness of the control algorithm. They also show that the inverter can fully deliver the active power from the DER to the grid, generate maximum nonactive power, and does not exceed its current rating requirement. The control algorithm combines the current limiter with the active power and nonactive power control, and ensures that the transition from one control mode to another is smooth and effective. The control algorithm provides a fast dynamic response of the DER; therefore, the DER system is capable of providing its full active power and nonactive power service during system transients, such as voltage dip, sudden load change, and high current inrush from large motor start. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT The authors would like to express their gratitude to Chester Coomer and Phil Irminger for their assistance in performing the experimental work for this paper. REFERENCES [1] P. Rao, M. L. Crow, Z. Yang, STATCOM control for power system voltage control applications, IEEE Transactions on Power Delivery, vol. 15, No. 4, October 2004, pp. 1311-1317. [2] Z. Yang, C. Shen, L. Zhang, M. L. Crow, S. Atcitty, Integration of a STATCOM and battery energy storage, IEEE Transactions on Power Systems, vol. 16, May 2001, pp. 254 260. [3] C. Banos, M. Aten, P. Cartwright, T. C. Green, Benefits and control of STATCOM with energy storage in wind power generation, The 8 th IEE International Conference on AC and DC Power Transmission, 2006, pp. 230 235. [4] H. Wrede, V. Staudt, Optimized feed forward control of a STATCOM with limited energy storage capability for flicker compensation, IEEE 35 th Power Electronics Specialists Conference, 2004, vol. 4, pp.3157 3163. [5] A. Arulampalam, J. B. Ekanayake, N. Jenkins, Application study of a STATCOM with energy storage, IEE Proceedings on Generation, Transmission and Distribution, vol. 150, May 2003, pp. 373 384. [6] M. L. Kothari, J. C. Patra, Design of STATCOM controllers with energy storage system using GEA, Proceedings of the 37 th Annual North American Power Symposium, 2005, pp. 260 266. [7] Y. Xu, L. M. Tolbert, J. N. Chiasson, F. Z. Peng, J. B. Campbell, Generalized instantaneous nonactive power theory for STATCOM, IET Electric Power Applications, vol. 1, no. 6, Nov. 2007, pp. 853-861. [8] N. Mohan, T. M. Undeland, W. P. Robbins, Power Electronics: Converters, Applications, and Design, John Wiley and Sons, Second Edition, 1995. 3861
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