Contents

Preface xi List of contributors xii

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Introduction to mixing problems 1 A. W. Nienow, N. Harnby and M. F. Edwards 1.1 Range of problems 2 1.1.1 Problem identification and philosophy 1.1.2 Singlephase liquid mixing 2 1.1.3 Solid-liquid mixing 3 1.1.4 Gas-liquid mixing 3 1.1.5 Liquid-liquid (immiscible) mixing 4 1.1.6 Three-phase contacting 4 1.1.7 Solidsmixing 4 1.1.8 Heat transfer 5 1.1.9 Overmixing 5 1.2 Mixingmechanisms 5 1.2.1 Liquidmixing 5 1.2.2 Solidsmixing 10 1.3 Assessmentof mixture quality 16 1.4 Rheology 18 Notation 22 References 23 Characterization of powder mixtures 25 N. Hamby 2.1 A qualitative approach 25 2.2 A quantitative approach 26 2.2.1 Powder sampling 27 2.2.2 Limitingvariance values 28 2.2.3 Statisticalinference 30 A typical mixture analysis 33 2.3 Non-ideal mixtures 40 2.4 References 41

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The selection of powder mixers 42

N. Harnby
3.1 The range of mixers available 42 3.1.1 Tumbler mixers 42 3.1.2 Convective mixers 42 3.1.3 High shear mixers 47 3.1.4 Fluidized mixers 48 3.1.5 Hopper mixers 51 3.1.6 Multi-purpose mixers 52 Selection based on process requirements 52 3.2 Selection based on mixture quality 54 3.3 Selection based on mixing costs 59 3.4 Selection decision chart 61 3.5 References 61 Mixing in fluidized beds 62

D. Geldart
4.1 4.2 Introduction 62 Fundamentals offluidization 63 4.2.1 Minimum fluidization 63 4.2.2 Types of fluidization 64 4.2.3 The role of bubbles 67 Types of mixing problems 68 4.3 Mixing in non-segregating systems 69 4.4 4.4.1 Background theory 69 4.4.2 Turnover times 71 4.4.3 Residence time distributions 71 Mixing in segregating systems 73 4.5 4.5.1 Mixing criteria 73 4.5.2 Powders containing particles of equal density but variable size 74 4.5.3 Powders containing species of differing densities and sizes 75 4.6 Concluding remarks 76 Notation 77 References 78 The mixing of cohesive powders 79

N. Harnby
5.1 5.2 Introduction 79 Interparticulate forces 82 5.2.1 Bonding due to moisture 82 5.2.2 Electrostatic bonding 88 5.2.3 Van der Waals' force bonding 89 5.2.4 Interaction of the bonding forces 91 Selection of mixer 94

5.3

5.4 Mixture quality for cohesive systems 95 References 9[;

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The dispersion of fine particles in liquid media 99 G. D. Parfitt and H. A. Barnes 6.1 Introduction 99 Stages in the dispersion process 100 6.2 6.2.1 Incorporation 100 6.2.2 Wetting 102 6.2.3 Breakdown of agglomerates and aggregates 106 6.2.4 Stability to flocculation or colloidal stability 107 Other considerations 115 6.3 References 116 A review of liquid mixing equipment 118 M. F. Edwards and M. R. Baker 7.1 Introduction 118 7.2 Mechanically-agitated vessels 119 7.2.1 Vessels 119 7.2.2 Baffles 120 7.2.3 Impellers 120 Jet mixers 125 7.3 7.4 In-line static mixers 126 In-line dynamic mixers 127 7.5 Mills 128 7.6 7.7 High-speed dispersing units 128 Valve homogenizers 130 7.8 Ultrasonic homogenizers 130 7.9 7.10 Extruders 132 7.11 Equipment selection 136 References 136 Mixing of liquids in stirred tanks 137 M. F. Edwards, M. R. Baker and J. C. Godfrey 8.1 Introduction 137 8.2 Power input 137 8.2.1 Newtonian liquids 137 8.2.2 Non-Newtonian liquids 140 8.3 Flow patterns 145 8.4 Flow rate-head concepts 147 8.5 Turbulence measurements 148 8.6 Mixing time 149 8.6.1 Newtonian liquids 151 8.6.2 Non-Newtonian liquids 154 8.7 Mixing efficiency 155 Notation 156 References 157

9. Jet mixing 159

B. K. Revill

9.1 9.2 9.3

Introduction 159 Fluid dynamics of turbulent jets 161 Jet mixing in tanks 163 9.3.1 Measurement of mixing time 163 9.3.2 Fluid dynamics of jet mixed tanks 164 Theoretical prediction of batch mixing time 165 9.3.3 Experimental correlations for jet mixing time 166 9.3.4 Recommended jet/tank geometry 170 9.3.5 Stratification 172 9.3.6 9.3.7 Liquid level variation 174 9.3.8 Continuous mixing 174 9.3.9 Design procedure 174 9.3.10 When to use jet mixed tanks 175 9.4 Jet mixing in tubes 177 9.4.1 Design basis 177 9.4.2 Coaxial jet mixer design 178 9.4.3 Side entry jet mixer design 180 9.4.4 Use of tubular jet mixers 180 Notation 181 References 182

10. Mixing in single-phase chemical reactors

J. R. Bourne

184

10.1 10.2

Introduction 184 Mechanisms of mixing 184 10.2.1 Convective, distributive mixing of a single-feed stream 185 10.2.2 Diffusive mixing 188 10.2.3 Approximate method 189 10.2.4 More accurate methods 190 Notation 196 References 198

11. Laminar flow and distributive mixing 200

M. F. Edwards

11.1 Introduction 200 11.2 Laminar shear 202 11.3 Elongational (or extensional) laminar flow 210 11.4 Distributive mixing 214 11.5 Dispersive mixing in laminar flows 216 11.6 Applications to blending and dispersing equipment 217 11.7 Assessment of mixture quality 222 Notation 223 References 224

12. Static mixers 225

J. C. Godfrey
Introduction 225 12.1.1 Mixertypes 226 12.2 Laminar mixing 227 12.2.1 Mixingindices 232 12.2.2 Mixingrate 234 12.2.3 Energy and efficiency 238 12.3 Turbulent mixing 242 12.3.1 Mixingrate 243 12.3.2 Energy requirements 245 12.3.3 Applications 245 12.4 Conclusions 246 Notation 247 References 248 12.1

13. Mechanical aspects of mixing 250

R. King
13.1 13.2 Introduction 250 The production of 'steady' forces on an agitator and transmission of power 251 13.2.1 'Steady' forces on an agitator 251 13.2.2 Transmission of power by an agitator shaft 254 The EEUA method of shaft sizing 254 13.3.1 Introduction 254 13.3.2 Combined torsion and bending 256 13.3.3 Stressanalysis 258 Fluctuating forces and vibrations 259 13.4.1 Resonance 259 13.4.2 Vibrations 259 13.4.3 Response to forcing 261 13.4.4 Fluctuating loads on an agitator shaft 262 13.4.5 Whirling of the agitator shaft 264 Shaft design to accommodate fluctuating loads - the FMP approach 265 13.5.1 Introduction 265 13.5.2 Sizingthe shaft 266 13.5.3 Stress analysis 267 Fatigue analysis 268 13.6.1 Introduction 268 13.6.2 Bending only 268 13.6.3 Combined bending and torsion 269 13.6.4 Checking the safety of the design for fatigue 271 13.6.5 The importance of a fatigue check 272

13.3

13.4

13.5

13.6

Seals, gearboxes and impellers 272 13.7.1 Seals 272 13.7.2 Gearboxes 275 13.7.3 Impellers 278 13.8 Economic considerations 279 13.8.1 Introduction 279 13.8.2 Remedial losses 279 13.8.3 Marketing losses 280 13.8.4 Examples 280 13.9 Overall conclusions 283 Notation 283 References 285 Appendix 13.1 Worked examples 286
14. Dynamics of emulsification 294 D. C. Peters 14.1 Introduction 294 14.2 Rheology and stability 295 14.3 Droplet formation 300 14.3.1 Deformation and breakup in steady flows 301 14.3.2 Dynamic effects 306 14.3.3 Turbulence 306 14.4 Implications for process design 309 14.4.1 Batch processing 309 14.4.2 Continuous processing 311 Notation 311 References 313 Appendix 14.1: Numerical example of process design 315 Appendix 14.2: A procedure for scaling up or down non-Newtonian processes 318 15. Gas--liquid dispersion and mixing 322 J. C. Middleton 15.1 Introduction - classification of gas-liquid mixing problems 322 15.2 Types and configurations of turbulent gas-liquid stirred vessels 326 15.3 A design basis for gas-liquid agitated vessels 330 15.4 Power consumption 331 15.5 Bubble size and coalescence 341 15.6 Gas hold-up fraction 342 15.7 Concentration driving force 343 15.7.1 Liquid mixing 343 15.7.2 Gas mixing 343 15.8 Gas-liquid mass transfer 346 15.9 Heat transfer 349

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15.10 Gas-liquid mixers as reactors 349 15.10.1 Theory of mass transfer with reaction 350 15.10.2 Locale of diffusion limitation 351 15.10.3 Mixing mode and reaction 352 15.10.4 Scale of mixing 353 15.10.5 Experimental work for classification of reaction regimes 354 15.10.6 Gas-liquid reactor modelling 355 15.11 Example of scale-up 357 Notation 360 References 361 16. The suspension of solid particles 364
A. W. Nienow

16.1 16.2

Introduction 364 Definitions of states of suspension and distribution 364 16.2.1 Just complete suspension 364 16.2.2 Homogeneous suspension 365 16.2.3 Bottom or corner fillets 365 16.2.4 Dispersion of floating solids 365 16.3 Power consumption in systems with suspended particles 365 16.4 Mechanisms and models of particle suspension and distribution 366 16.4.1 Particle suspension 366 16.4.2 Solidsdistribution 368 16.5 Experimental measurement of particle suspension and distribution 369 16.5.1 Particle distribution 369 16.5.2 Just complete suspension speed, Njs 369 16.6 Experimental results and correlations for Njs 370 16.6.1 Introduction 370 16.6.2 Correlations for Njs 372 16.6.3 Particle and fluid properties 373 16.6.4 Solid concentration 373 16.6.5 Standard geometry 374 16.6.6 Other geometries 379 16.6.7 Scale-up 380 16.7 Selection of geometry and the scale-up rule for (Er)Js 381 16.8 Solids distribution and withdrawal 382 16.8.1 Assessment of solids distribution and scale-up 382 16.8.2 Solid withdrawal 384 16.9 Three phase systems 386 16.10 The ingestion and dispersion of floating solids 388 16.11 Conclusions 390 Notation 390 References 392

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The mixer as a reactor: liquid/solid systems 394 A. W. Nienow 17.1 Reactor types 394 17.2 Reaction rates 395 17.3 Mass transfer 398 17.3.1 Measurement of mass transfer coefficient, k 398 17.3.2 The relationship between k and impeller speed N 399 17.3.3 kjs at Njs and as a function of (er)js 400 17.3.4 Prediction of the bulk diffusion mass transfer coefficient, k 402 17.3.5 The dissolution time when Sh = 2 406 17.4 The use of the slip velocity equation 406 17.5 Particle impacts and abrasion 407 17.6 Conclusions 409 Notation 409 References 410

Index

412