Experimental study on hydraulic fractures in cohesive soil grounds by slurry pressure

D. Yuan Koizumi Laboratory, Department of Civil Engineering, Waseda University A. Koizumi Department of Civil Engineering, Waseda University ABSTRACT: The hydraulic fracture phenomena in actual grounds are different from those in the laboratory. The main reason is that the extension of hydraulic fracture in actual ground may become very large. Therefore, we investigate hydraulic fracture initiation pressure and the fracture extending pressure in a site experiment by well bores. The extending speed of the hydraulic fracture was calculated from the injection rate of mud slurry into the hydraulic fracture space. The main objective was to investigate hydraulic fracture problems when the slurry type shield is used to excavate through cohesive soil ground. Therefore, in addition to the well bore test, hydraulic fracture experiments using a model slurry type shield were done. From both experimental results, the hydraulic fracture situation for an actual slurry type shield could be predicted. 1 INTRODUCTION Hydraulic fracture of dam core material by hydraulic pressure and pulse caused in a cohesive soil ground may be caused by chemical grouting. In the slurry type shield, the cutting face is sometimes fractured by the excessive slurry pressure and the slurry suspension penetrates into the ground. Moreover, in cohesive soil ground, the slurry pressure may become too high by backfill grouting in the tail void of the shield, and large quantities of slurry enter the ground. This is not only uneconomical but also damages buried objects. Hydraulic fracture does not occur easily in a high permeability sandy ground, and but does occur easily in ground having low permeability such as cohesive soil and mixed silt fine sand layer. Though many researches on the hydraulic fracture initiation pressure have been done for cohesive soil specimens, the hydraulic fracture phenomena in actual grounds are different from those in the laboratory, mainly because the extension of hydraulic fracture in actual ground may become very large. Therefore, we investigated t h e hydraulic fracture initiation pressure and the fracture extending pressure in a site experiment by well bores. The extending speed of the hydraulic fracture was calculated from the injection rate of mud slurry into the hydraulic fracture space. The main objective was to investigate hydraulic fracture problems when the slurry type shield is used to excavate through cohesive soil ground. Th erefore, in addition to the well bore test, hydraulic fracture experiments using a model slurry type shield were done. From the results of experiments, the hydraulic fracture situation for an actual slurry type shield could be predicted. 2 FRACTURE PRESSURE BY FIELD TEST 2.1 Purpose of field test Though many researches on the hydraulic fracture pressure have been done for cohesive soil specimens, the value of fracture pressure Pf is given by:
Pf = 3 + q u

(1)

If 3 and q u are the same, from Eq.(1), the value of Pf increases in the experiment as grows. The hydraulic fracture extends in the actual ground differently from a small specimen in the laboratory. This will be called fracture extending, and necessary hydraulic pressure for this will be called fracture extending pressure Pc . This Pc cannot be measured with specimens in the laboratory. 2.2 Method of field test The experiment used bentonite slurry as a pressurizing liquid, to investigate of the hydraulic fracture phenomenon of the ground caused by the slurry pressure at the cutting face of the slurry shield. The experiment was executed in Oota ward Tokyo, where the Yurakucho layer (Ac layer) is thick. Eight experiment holes were arranged at intervals of 3m in two rows. The structure of the borehole is shown in Figure 1. Two depths from the ground level to the center of the boreholes are assumed (15m and 20m), and they exist in the Ac layer. Two kinds of bentonite slurry of the

pressurizing liquid were used , one of density 12% and the other 18%. Properties of the bentonite slurry

Val ve

Air pressure meter

p

Figure 3 shows the relationship between slurry pressure P and pressurizing time, and the amount of decrease on the surface of the slurry in the slurry tank and tank pressurizing time. The highest pressure is reached when the speed of decrease on
Table 1. Properties of the bentonite slurry Density 12.0 18.0 Item (%) (%) Specific gravity 1.06 1.08 Funnel viscosity 24.1-27.0s 39.4-39.8s Table 2. Soil test result Depth 15.0 Item (m) q u (kPa) 46.0 (kN/m 3 ) 14.91 3 (kPa) 247.0
A.P(m ) +10

2 70 .0 P ressure meter

Slurry tank

Va lve
Reg ulator

1 4 ,3 2 3

1 9 ,3 5 7

20.0 (m) 66.7 14.72 315.0

Pressure g auge

0
h'
Hole
2 0 0 .0

-10

Figure 1. Structure of the hole

-20

Ac layer

are shown in Table1. The ground cross section is shown in Figure 2 and the soil test result and lateral pressure 3 measurement result of the sampling sample are shown in Table 2. 3 at the holes position was assumed to be the horizontal whole earth pressure (water pressure included), and to be equal in all horizontal directions. A suitable total pressure cell for cohesive soil ground was used. After filling the slurry tank up to a fixed height with the bentonite slurry, the valve under the slurry tank was opened, and the experiment began. The slurry compression was done with the regulator, and the lost volume of slurry according to the air pressurizing was measured from the decrease on the slurry liquid side in the slurry tank. The pressurizing was stopped when the surface of the slurry in the slurry tank began to descend, and pressurizing was kept constant until change on the surface of slurry was almost zero. The experiment continued went until the decrease speed on the surface of slurry increased rapidly, and a similar operation was continued until slurry tank was almost empty. 2.3 Fracture pressure

-30

-40

Figure 2. The ground cross section the surface of the slurry in the slurry tank increases rapidly. Hydraulic fracture pressure Pf is the sum of the slurry pressure from the pressure gauge position (h') shown in Figure 1 to the well bore center added to this highest pressure. Table 3 shows Pf, 3, q u, and derived from Eq.(1) of all experiment holes. Because the minimum value of is near 0, the minimum hydraulic fracture pressure Pf min should be assumed to be 3 when there is a possibility of disturbance in cohesive soil ground. 3 FRACTURE EXTENDING PRESSURE Figure3 shows that after the Pressure decreases rapidly, pressure becomes constant and the fracture continues. Hydraulic fracture extending pressure Pc is sum of the slurry pressure from the pressure gauge position (h') shown in Figure 1 to the hole center added to this continu ing pressure. The speed of

decrease of slurry level increases rapidly in the slurry tank, then settles down to an almost constant speed of decrease. The fracture continuance flowing
400

quantity q c is obtained from this slurry level decrease speed. This q c corresponds to the speed of
Slurry surface level (cm)
360.0 95 85 75 65 55 45 35 25 15 5 1000 1200 1400

Pressure P (kPa )

350 300 250 200 150 100 50 0 0

80.0

79.1 223.6 No.3 hole Fracture occurred point 997s Fracture extending

155.6

Pressure Slurry surface level

200

400

600 Time (s)

800

Figure 3 Relationship between slurry pressure, slurry surface level and pressurizing time Table 3 Results of field test
Holes No. 1 4 6 2 3 5 7 8 Depth (m) 20.0 Slurry Density (%) 12 12 12 12 12 12 18 18 Fracture Pressure Pf (kPa) 320.0 348.0 444.5 256.2 373.1 308.6 261.7 247.6 0.075 0.495 1.940 0.211 2.750 1.350 0.330 0.024 Fracture extending pressure Pc (kPa) 308.3 299.0 329.2 233.5 236.7 247.2 240.0 239.1 Fracture continuance pressure q c (cm 3 /s) 47.56 83.78 160.64 110.05 194.51 97.29 8.01 14.31 Slurry pushing pressure Pp (kPa) 12.3 36.3 117.6 85.0 109.3 50.4 24.0 22.6

15.0

increase of the fracture space. Figure 4 plots Pc and q c for the two depths. Pc almost corresponds to 3 in each depth though both values of continuance flowing quantity qc greatly change from this figure for the two depths. Therefore, Pc can be expressed by the following expression.
Pc 3

increase area of fracture per unit time (A) can be calculated. In addition, it is necessary to assume how the fracture extending shape and fracture extend, then the total extension Lt of the part of the fracture from the fracture extending shape at fracture extending time t can be determined . If the part of the fracture extending speed Vf is the same, Vf becomes :
V
f

(3)
=

Lt

qc bL t

(4)

Pc in Eq.(3) corresponds to the fracture extending resistance to make the fracture extend further. The volume of the Pc value is equal to 3. 3 FRACTURE EXTENDING SPEED 3.1 Hydraulic fracture extending speed It is thought that the amount of hydraulic fracture extending in cohesive soil ground increases only due to the volume of the liquid flows in the hydraulic fracture space. If the fracture is an even thickness board, and the board thickness b is known, and fracture continuance flowing quantity i s q c , the

3.2. Fracture continuance flowing quantity qc q c is necessary to calculate Vf from Eq.(4). In order to send qc to the fracture space, the slurry pushing pressure necessary to clear fracture extending resistance 3. The slurry pushing pressure Pp is that fracture extending resistance 3 subtracted from that sum of the slurry pressure from the pressure gauge position (h') shown in Figure. 1 to the hole center added to the air pressure of the s lurry tank. Figure 5 shows the relation between Pp and q c of

each hole. q c increased as Pp .increased. Because the density of slurry is high, qc of No.7 and No.8 is especially small. Because the viscosity of slurry related to q c , the straight line in Figure. 5 is only passes six points of 12% density of slurry (funnel viscosity 24-27 sec). The result is shown by Eq. (5).
q = 1 .572 P
c p

5 FRACTURE SITUATION OF COHESIVE SOIL GROUND WITH MODEL SLURRY SHIELD 5.1 Fracture phenomenon with slurry shield A fracture in the cutting face ground generated by the slurry pressure could cause blowing out of slurry shield. There are many uncertain ties regarding fracture situation of the cutting face when cohesive
Slurry pushing pressure p (kPa) P
140 120 100 80 60 40 20 0 0
Slurry density 12% Slurry density 18%
2 6 3

(5)

400

Fracture extending pressure P c kPa

Depth 20m Depth 15m 1 78

350 300 250 200 150 100 0

3 (Depth 20m) 6

4 5 2 3 Dates are test No.

5 7 4 8 1

P p = 0.636 q c
(R 2

= 0.894)

Dates are test No.

50 100 150 200 250 Fracture continuance flowing quantity qc (cm /s)
3

50 100 150 200 250 Fracture continuance flowing quantity q c (cm 3 /s)

Figure 4. Relationship between fracture extending pressure and fracture continuance flowing quantity

Figure 5. Relationship between slurry pushing Pressure and fracture continuance flowing quantity

30cm

35cm

1 00cm

80cm

: Soil ground : Chamber : Cutter head : Cutter motor : Excavation motor : Screw conveyer : Pressure meter : Slurry tank : Excavated soil accumulation tank

Figure 6 Model excavate device Moreover, fracture extending flowing quantity q c is proportional to the area (a 0) of the entrance where slurry flows and Pp. q c for the slurry shield (The area of the entrance is A becomes like Eq. (6).
q c = 1 . 572 Pp A a0

soil ground is excavated in the slurry shield. We conducted experiments on the fracture with a model slurry shield excavate device in cohesive soil ground. The model shield excavate device is shown in Figure 6. The whole of actually corresponds to

(6)

10cm 20c m

the chamber of the shield and the slurry circulates. The excavated soil enters the excavated soil accumulation tank by the screw conveyer . The cohesive soil ground of the earth tank is gypsum cohesive soil of constituents shown in Table 4. The thickness of the earth covering is 1.75D against shield diameter D. Uniaxial compression strength changes as shown in Table 4 depending on the amount of mixing moisture. The slurry is made of 10% bentonite, and the funnel viscosity of slurry
Table 4. Mix proportions of gypsum cohesive soil ground Mix proportions qu g (kPa) Kaolinite: 30 00 Clays: 2000 10140 Gypsum: 2000 Water: 40006000 Table 5. Results of model shield test
Test No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Uniaxial Compression strength qu (kPa) 69.5 114.0 132.1 134.3 101.2 78.3 60.5 68.0 19.0 Loads (kPa) 0 0 0 0 10 10 10 10 10 Fracture pressure (kPa) 71.3 92.3 108.5 190.0 175.0 148.1 126.0 157.6 55.7 Degree () 45 38 30 35 Perpendicular Perpendicular Perpendicular Perpendicular Perpendicular

Will blowing out of slurry occur or not? This is depends on the size of the ratio of time t required for the fracture to reach the surface of the earth to time t0 for which that slurry pressure acts on the fracture entrance. This time t 0 depends on the excavation speed Vs of the shield. The distance the shield will advance by the time the fracture extending generated in the cutting face is closed is maximum as shown in Figure 7. and is distance L from the cutter point to the skin plate point. Therefore, time t0 for which the

Photograph 1. Fracture situation (load)

which is colored with rhodamine is 25-29 sec. The slurry was colored to clarify the fracture side, etc. Direction and thickness of fracture Photograph 1 shows the fracture situation when the l o a d i s 1 0 kPa. The fracture side became perpendicular two sides from the corner part of all shield cutting face circumferences. Photograph 2 shows fracture situation when the unloading. In this case, the fracture extend ed chiefly aslant from the top semicircle of shield cutting face, and slurry blew out to the ground level. The experiment result of measuring the angle on the fracture side is shown in Table 5. Moreover, Photograph 3 shows the fracture thickness (experiment No.2). The measurement value of the fracture thickness is 2.58 mm in the range of 2.1-2.9 mm on average. 6 B L O W I N G O U T P H ENOMENON WITH ACTUAL SLURRY SHIELD IN COHESIVE SOIL GROUND

Photograph 2. Fracture situation (unload)

Photograph 3. Fracture thickness (Test No.2)

slurry pressure acts on the fracture extending is as follows.

to = L (cm) V s (cm/sec)

(7)

On the other hand, fracture extending speed Vf is as given in Eq.(4). Total extension Lt in the tip part of the fracture is the length of long side of a
Distance L from cutter point to skin plate point

thickness of 1D and 3D is assumed as one example here. Whether blowing out of slurry occurs depending on the fracture extending speed and the ground level when the fracture occurs due to the slurry pressure is examined. The slurry used has a general funnel viscosity of 24-27 sec, and q c i s calculated from Eq. (6). Moreover, the of Eq. (1) is assumed to be standard 0.8. And assumed =45,
Ground surface
S

Skin plate
Feed pipe Cutter head

Side elevation

Shield D

Cutter
Excavation speed Vs Chamber Drain pipe

Figure. 7 Distance L from cutter point to skin plate point

s L

H
Shield

trapezoid as shown from the model shield experiment result in Figure 8. Lt becomes the next equation based on such assumption.
Lt = D 2 + 4 q c t tan b

(8)

Plane figure

When the tip part of the fracture reached surface of the earth, Lt becomes Ls. At this time, the fracture extends to the surface of the earth, and the slurry blows out, is gen. If the continuance time at this time is assumed to be t s, Ls is as follows.
Ls = D 2 + 4q c ts tan b

Figure. 8 Direction of Fracture =30. The result is as follows: Earth covering thickness H=1D, t s=137sec Earth covering thickness H=3D, t s=438sec When the distance from the cutter point to the gate leaf point is adjusted to 30 cm, and the excavation speed of the shield is assumed to be 0.05 cm/sec, t 0 is as follows from Eq. (7). t0=137sec As a result, blowing out of slurry will occur in the surface of the earth for earth covering thicknesses of both 1D and 3D. 7 SUMMARY This research researched the cutting face fracture situation under the slurry shield of the action of

(9)

The t s was obtained from this equation.

ts = ( Ls 2 D 2 ) b 4 q c tan

(10)

Next, fracture extending flowing quantity q c at the shield is examined. Pushing pressure Pp is necessary to obtain q c . Pushing pressure Pp becomes (Pf -3) in which 3 of the cutting face ground is subtracted from fracture pressure Pf. That is , Pp =q u by Eq. (1). If this value is substituted for Eq. (6), q c is obtained. The case where a slurry shield of D=8m excavates cohesive soil ground (q u=100 kPa) for earth covering

slurry pressure in cohesive soil ground . From experiments on the fracture of a field experiment hole, the following results were obtained. 1) There are fracture generation pressure Pf and fracture extending pressure Pc in an actual cohesive soil ground . The difference of fracture generation pressure Pf in actual cohesive soil ground is large. Therefore, the minimum hydraulic fracture pressure Pf min should be assumed to be 3 when there is a possibility of disturbance in cohesive soil ground. 2) Fracture extending pressure Pc shows little difference, and is near the value of 3. Because Pc takes a value close to 3 without any relation to the size of flowing quantity q c , the volume of the Pc v a l u e i s e q u a l t o 3. This fracture extending pressure corresponds to resistance of the fracture extending in cohesive soil ground . 3) Because fracture extending s p e e d Vf i s proportional to fracture extending flowing quantity q c , and is inversely proportional to total extension Lt o f the latest fracture and thickness b of the fracture, then Vf =q c/bL t. 4) Fracture extending flowing quantity qc i s proportional to the area (A) of the entrance where slurry flows and slurry pushing pressure Pp. We could not consider the direction and shape on the fracture side when excavating a cohesive soil ground in the slurry shield only by the experiment hole in the field. A model shield with earth tank experiment was therefore carried out. From the finding results for an actual slurry shield, the following conclusions can be obtain. 5) The fracture extends chiefly aslant from the top semicircle o f shield cutting face when axis difference stress ( 1-3) of the shield position ground is very small. 6) The fracture extends from all circumferences in a perpendicular direction when (1-3) at the shield position ground is a little. 7) The slurry pressure acts continuously until it is confirmed that crack is radial generated from the cutting face circumference part by low slurry pressure before reaching the fracture pressure, and reaches the skin plate. Meanwhile, if the slurry pressure rises to the fracture pressure, fracture is

caused, slurry blows out in the fracture afterwards if continuously progressing, and reached the surface of the earth. 8) Blowing out occurs when an actual shield of D=800cm in outside diameter excavates the cohesive soil ground with earth covering 1D and 3D. However, if the value which relates to the calculation of the fracture extending speed is changed, blow out to the surface of the earth does not occur even if fractures are caused occasionally. 8. REFERENCES Akira Mori, Masahito Tamura: Hydraulic fracturing pressure of cohesive soils, Soils and Foundations, Vol.No.1 pp.14-22, Mar 1987 Akira Mori, Masahito Tamura, Fukui Yoshihiro: Fracturing pressure of soil ground by viscous materials, Soils and Foundations, Vol.30, No.3, Haimson, B. and Fairhurt, C.: Initiation and extension of hydraulic fractures in rocks, Soc. Petrol. Eng. J., pp310-318, 1967 JSCA. Tunnel standard specification for shield tunnels, 1996. Jaworski, G.W., Duncan, J.M. and Seed, H.B. Laboratory study of hydraulic fracturing, Proc, ASCE, GT6, pp713-732, 1981.