Chapter 1

Simple Elastoplastic Models for

Geomaterials
1.1 Introductory Remarks
The earliest scientic investigations of yielding of soils were carried out in the late 1930s by
Rendulic [12] and Hvorslev [9]. However, it was not until the 1950s that a mathematical
description of this behavior was realized through the application of rate-independent elasto-
plasticity to geomaterials. This evolution was strongly inuenced by the well-established
theory of metal plasticity. Since the 1950s, theoretical soil mechanicians have been preoc-
cupied with the application of elastoplasticity theory to geomaterials in an eort to better
simulate the complex behavior of such materials. This chapter discusses some simple rate-
independent elastoplastic models that have been developed to characterize the behavior of
soils.
The majority of such models have assumed an elastic, perfectly-plastic material response.
The yield criterion is thus identical to the failure criterion. Since most soils are more accu-
rately characterized as ductile, hardening (and possibly softening) materials, the assumption
of elastic, perfectly-plasticity represents a rather idealized form of the constitutive models.
Consequently such models have only been used in the investigation of ultimate or failure
conditions such as those associated with limit equilibrium analyses.
1.2 Mechanical Behavior of Geomaterials
In general, geomaterials are non-homogeneous, anisotropic, path-dependent materials that
exhibit nonlinear stress-strain relationships, changes in volume under shear, dilatancy, as
well as time- and rate-dependent response. In light of these complexities, it is evident that
simple elastic characterizations are, in general, inadequate for characterizing the behavior of
geomaterials. Instead, some inelasticity must be accounted for in the constitutive relations.
Geomaterials are inherently particulate systems. The discrete particles that make up
geomaterials are not strongly bonded together in the way that the crystals of a metal are;
hence, the particles are relatively free to move around with respect to each other. This is
the basic characteristic that distinguishes soil mechanics from solid and uid mechanics. It
1
Course Notes
University of Delaware
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering
is no surprise that the mechanical behavior of soil depends to a great extent on the relative
arrangement of voids or particles, or microfabric of the soil.
Geomaterials are also known to exhibit a frictional behavior; that is, failure occurs when
the obliquity (stress ratio) of the resultant stress on a failure or sliding surface reaches a
maximum. One consequence of this observation is that the radial distance in the octahe-
dral plane to failure in axial extension is less than the radial distance to failure in axial
compression. In addition, the radial distance to failure increases with hydrostatic eective
stress.
1.3 Tresca Failure Criterion
The most basic failure criterion for soils is the Maximum Shearing Stress Theory or Tresca
criterion. As mentioned in Chapter ??, this one-parameter failure criterion was originally
developed as a yield criterion for metals.
According to the Tresca criterion, failure occurs when the maximum shearing stress
reaches a certain critical value k. Mathematically this criterion is expressed as
f =
1
2
|
I

III
| k = 0 (1.1)
where
I
and
III
represent the major and minor principal stresses, respectively, (
I

II

III
) and k is a model parameter. The value of k is determined experimentally from a pure
shear test.
1
Geometrically, the Tresca criterion denes a cylindrical surface of hexahedral cross-section
whose generator is parallel to the hydrostatic axis and whose longitudinal axis coincides with
the hydrostatic axis. Since the Tresca criterion is obviously independent of any frictional
component of shear strength, it has no dependence on the rst stress invariant I
1
.
.
Remark: The Tresca yield criterion clearly has several shortcomings in connection with its
application to geomaterials, namely:
According to this criterion the shear strength is independent of the hydrostatic stress, which
is known not to be valid for soils in general.
The criterion predicts the same failure stress in compression and extension. This is, however,
counter to experimental evidence, which shows that soils are generally characterized by a
tensile strength that is lower than the compressive strength.
The eect of the intermediate principal stress is not accounted for in the criterion.
Remark: Adequate results can, however, be obtained using the Tresca criterion for saturated
soils under undrained conditions when the analysis is performed in terms of total
1
The constant k can also be determined from uniaxial tensile tests. However, due to the particulate
nature of soils, such tests cannot realistically be performed.
2 V. N. Kaliakin
Course Notes
University of Delaware
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering
stresses [1]. In agreement with experimental observations for such = 0 analyses,
the shearing strength of a saturated soil is independent of the hydrostatic total stress.
In such cases the model parameter k represents the undrained shear strength of the
soil c
u
. Its value can be determined from the results of an unconsolidated-undrained
(UU) axisymmetric triaxial experiment.
.
1.4 von Mises Failure Criterion
The second basic failure criterion for soils is the von Mises criterion. As mentioned in
Chapter ??, similar to the Tresca model, this one-parameter failure criterion was originally
developed as a yield criterion for metals. However, unlike the Tresca criterion, the von Mises
criterion assumes that the intermediate principal stress also inuences the materials re-
sponse. Mathematically, the von Mises criterion is given by
f (
ij
, k) = J
2
k
2
= 0 (1.2)
where J
2
is the second invariant of the deviatoric stress tensor and k is a model parameter.
Since the von Mises failure criterion denes a circular cylinder whose longitudinal axis coin-
cides with the hydrostatic axis, it follows that it cannot account for the frictional nature of
soils.
.
Remark: The von Mises yield criterion shares several shortcomings with the Tresca model
in connection with their application to geomaterials, namely:
According to the von Mises criterion the shear strength is independent of the hydrostatic
stress, which is known not to be valid for soils in general.
From equation (1.2) it is evident that the von Mises yield criterion ignores the dependence
of f on J
3
. Consequently, the dierence in response associated with dierent angles in the
octahedral plane cannot be accounted for by this criterion.
The criterion predicts the same failure stress in compression and extension. This is, however,
counter to experimental evidence, which shows that soils are generally characterized by a
tensile strength that is lower than the compressive strength.
Remark: While there is no clear consensus with respect to which of the two nonfrictional
failure criteria more closely represents the behavior of actual soils (relatively speaking,
both are rather poor choices), the von Mises has the advantage that it lacks the corners
(singularities) associated with the Tresca criterion. This makes it easier to work
with mathematically.
3 V. N. Kaliakin
Course Notes
University of Delaware
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering
1.5 Mohr-Coulomb Failure Criterion
The principal stresses associated with failure in a geomaterial, as well as the angle of the plane
in which the failure will occur, are commonly determined using Mohrs circle [10]. Mohr
2
used his now well-known graphical representation of stress at a point to devise a strength
theory that could be adapted to various stress conditions and thus be brought into better
agreement with experimental observations. Mohr assumed that of all the planes having the
same magnitude of normal stress the weakest one, on which failure is most likely to occur,
is that with the maximum shear stress. Consequently it is thus necessary to consider only
the circle that corresponds to the maximum dierence in principal stress (i.e., the dierence
between the major and minor principal stress). If there are a sucient number of such
circles, an envelope of failure points can be drawn (Figure 1.1). For any stress states for
which there is no experimental data, it may be assumed with sucient accuracy that the
limiting circle will also touch this failure envelope. Although these envelopes are generally
curved, for simplicity they are commonly replaced by a straight line.
t
s
failureenvelope
Figure 1.1: Schematic Illustration of a Failure Envelope Constructed using Mohrs Circles
Coulombs friction hypothesis [3], which states that a linear relationship exists between
the shear stress at failure and the associated with normal stress, represents the simplest
approximation of a failure envelope. Consequently, the Coulomb hypothesis is commonly
2
Christian Otto Mohr (1835-1918) was a German civil engineer that made contributions to both the-
oretical and practical areas of mechanics. Because of his impact on the eld, he is considered to be one
of the most celebrated of the nineteenth century. Besides his famous graphical method for analyzing stress
(Mohr circle), Mohr also developed the Williot-Mohr diagram for truss displacements and the Maxwell-Mohr
method for analyzing statically indeterminate structures.
4 V. N. Kaliakin
Course Notes
University of Delaware
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering
used in conjunction with Mohrs graphical representation to determine the combination of
shear and normal stress that will cause a failure of the material.
Mathematically, the so-called Mohr-Coulomb failure criterion is thus given by
f =
n
tan c = 0 (1.3)
where is the shear stress on the failure plane,
n
is the normal stress acting on this plane,
c is the cohesion intercept (units of FL
2
), and represents the angle of internal friction.
To gain further insight into the Mohr-Coulomb failure criterion, we note from Figure 1.2
that
sin =
1
2
(
1

3
)
_
c cot +
1
2
(
1
+
3
)
(1.4)
This leads to the following relation:
1
2
(
1

3
) = c cos +
1
2
(
1
+
3
) sin (1.5)
which is commonly re-written in either of the following forms:

1
(1 sin ) =
3
(1 + sin ) + 2c cos (1.6)
or

1
(1 sin )
2c cos

3
(1 + sin )
2c cos
= 1 (1.7)
f
s
1
s
3
c
s
t
ccot f
+
1
2
( ) s
3
s
1
-
tan t =c+s
n
f
n
f
1
2
( ) s
3
s
1
Figure 1.2: Mohr-Coulomb Failure Criterion
5 V. N. Kaliakin
Course Notes
University of Delaware
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering
In three dimensions the Mohr-Coulomb criterion is often expressed as

2
2
=
_

1
+
2
2
_
sin() + c cos() (1.8)

3
2
=
_

2
+
3
2
_
sin() + c cos() (1.9)

1
2
=
_

3
+
1
2
_
sin() + c cos() (1.10)
This represents an irregular hexagonal pyramid in three-dimensional stress space, whose
axis coincides with the hydrostatic axis. The apex of the pyramid is located at (for the case
of c = 0) or near the origin in stress space. The failure surface has an irregular hexahedral
cross-section in the octahedral plane. This irregularity is due to the fact that according to
the Mohr-Coulomb criterion, the strength in compression is higher than in extension (this
shows the dependence of the criterion on the third stress invariant, which can be either
positive of negative).
.
Remark: In the above equation compressive stresses are assumed to be positive. If com-
pression is assumed to be negative then
n
should be replaced with
n
, etc.
Remark: If the material is frictionless; i.e., = 0, the Mohr-Coulomb failure criterion
reduces to the Maximum Shearing Stress or Tresca failure criterion. However, unlike
the Tresca criterion, the Mohr-Coulomb criterion is dependent on the mean normal
stress.
Remark: In order to use the Mohr-Coulomb failure criterion in the context of conventional
incremental plasticity, the failure criterion is used as a yield criterion.
Remark: The Mohr-Coulomb failure criterion is expressed in terms of the major and minor
principal stresses, but is independent of the intermediate principal stress.
Remark: From the gure showing the Mohr-Coulomb failure criterion in three-dimensional
stress space it is noted that no yielding would be predicted under conditions of pure
hydrostatic loading. This implies that the Mohr-Coulomb criterion cannot properly
simulate isotropic compression.
Remark: From the gure showing the Mohr-Coulomb failure criterion in three-dimensional
stress space it is noted that no yielding would be predicted under conditions of pure
6 V. N. Kaliakin
Course Notes
University of Delaware
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering
hydrostatic loading. This implies that the Mohr-Coulomb criterion cannot properly
simulate isotropic compression.
Remark: Another drawback of the Mohr-Coulomb failure criterion is the presence of cor-
ners in the octahedral plane. Such angularity has, however, been eliminated through
smooth hyperbolic and parabolic modications to the criterion [13].
Remark: In soil mechanics, the Mohr-Coulomb failure criterion is commonly used in con-
junction with the limit equilibrium method. To better illustrate this application, we
note that equation (1.6) leads to

1
=
3
_
1 + sin
1 sin
_
+ 2c
_
cos
1 sin
_
(1.11)
Substituting the trigonometric identities
1 + sin
1 sin
= tan
2
_

4
+

2
_
,
cos
1 sin
= tan
_

4
+

2
_
into equation (1.11) gives following expression for the major principal stress at failure:

1
=
3
tan
2
_

4
+

2
_
+ 2c tan
_

4
+

2
_
If c = 0, the limiting stress ratio at failure is

3
=
1 + sin
1 sin
= tan
2
_

4
+

2
_
which is seen to be the Rankine passive earth pressure coecient (K
p
).
Remark: For the case of c = 0 equation (1.6) leads to the following expression:
sin =

1

1
+
3
=
(
1
/
3
) 1
(
1
/
3
) + 1
If this equation is evaluated at the point of eective stress failure (i.e., when the ratio

1
/

3
is maximum), the result is the eective friction angle (

) associated with the

material. The value of

in axisymmetric triaxial compression is typically dierent

(and less than) the value in axisymmetric triaxial extension.
.
7 V. N. Kaliakin
Course Notes
University of Delaware
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering
1.5.1 Invariant Representation
Since the Mohr-Coulomb failure criterion is independent of the intermediate principal stress,
it is inconvenient to represent this criterion in terms of a general three-dimensional state of
stress dened by six components of the stress tensor. Instead, it is convenient to express the
criterion in terms of I
1
, J
2
and either the angle of similarity [1], or the Lode angle [11].
Using the angle of similarity, we recall that the principal stresses are computed in the
following manner:
_
_
_

3
_
_
_
=
I
1
3
_
_
_
1
1
1
_
_
_
+
2

J
2

3
_

_
cos
cos
_

2
3
_
cos
_
+
2
3
_
_

_
(1.12)
where I
1
and J
2
are the rst eective stress invariant and the second deviatoric stress invari-
ant, respectively; viz.,
I
1
=

kk
=

11
+

22
+

33
= tr (

) (1.13)
J
2
=
1
2
s
ij
s
ij
=
1
2
tr (s)
2
(1.14)
The angle of similarity, which denes the direction of the octahedral shear stress, and is
related to J
2
and J
3
in the following manner [1]:
cos 3 =
3

3
2
J
3
(J
2
)
3
2
(1.15)
where 0

3
. For the special case of axisymmetric triaxial compression (

1
>

2
=

3
),
= 0. For simple shear (

1
>

2
=

1
+

3
2
>

3
), =

6
. Finally, for the special case of
axisymmetric triaxial extension (

1
=

2
>

3
), =

3
.
Substituting for
1
and
3
from equation (1.12) into equation (1.6) gives

I
1
3
sin +

J
2

3
_
cos cos
_
+
2
3
__

J
2

3
_
cos + cos
_
+
2
3
__
sin c cos = 0 (1.16)
Using the trigonometric identities
cos cos = 2 sin
1
2
( + ) sin
1
2
( )
cos + cos = 2 cos
1
2
( + ) cos
1
2
( )
in conjunction with equation (1.16) leads to the following representation of the Mohr-
Coulomb failure criterion:
f (I
1
, J
2
, ) =
I
1
3
sin +
_
J
2
_
sin
_
+

3
_

3
cos
_
+

3
_
sin
_
c cos = 0 (1.17)
8 V. N. Kaliakin
Course Notes
University of Delaware
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering
Alternately, if the trigonometric identities
sin( + ) = sin cos + cos sin
cos( + ) = cos cos sin sin
are used in conjunction with equation (1.16), the Mohr-Coulomb failure criterion is re-written
as
f (I
1
, J
2
, ) = I
1
sin +
1
2
_
J
2
_
3(1 + sin ) sin +

3(3 sin ) cos

_
3c cos = 0 (1.18)
The principal stresses can be likewise be derived in terms of stress invariants in the
following manner [11]:
_
_
_

3
_
_
_
=
I
1
3
_
_
_
1
1
1
_
_
_
+
2

J
2

3
_

_
sin
_
2
3
+
_
sin ()
sin
_
4
3
+
_
_

_
(1.19)
where the Lode angle is dened by
sin 3 =
3

3
2
J
3
(J
2
)
3
2
(1.20)
with

6


6
. For the special case of axisymmetric triaxial compression, =

6
; for
axisymmetric triaxial extension, =

6
.
Substituting for
1
and
3
from equation (1.19) into equation (1.6) gives

I
1
3
sin +

J
2

3
_
sin
_
2
3
+
_
sin
_
4
3
+
__

J
2

3
_
sin
_
2
3
+
_
+ sin
_
4
3
+
__
sin c cos = 0 (1.21)
Using the trigonometric identities
sin sin = 2 cos
1
2
( + ) sin
1
2
( )
sin + sin = 2 sin
1
2
( + ) cos
1
2
( )
in conjunction with equation (1.21), the Mohr-Coulomb failure criterion is re-written as
f (I
1
, J
2
, ) =
I
1
3
sin +
_
J
2
_
cos +
1

3
sin sin
_
c cos = 0 (1.22)
9 V. N. Kaliakin
Course Notes
University of Delaware
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering
.
Remark: It was previously stated that the irregular shape of the Mohr-Coulomb criterion in
the octahedral plane is attributed to the fact that the strength in compression is higher
than in extension. In support of this assertion, we note that for an axisymmetric
triaxial compression stress state, = /6. Equation (1.22) thus gives
_
J
2
=
I
1
3
sin + c cos
1
6

3 (3 sin )
(1.23)
For I
1
= 0 (which corresponds to the -plane) this reduces to
_
J
2
=
6c cos

3 (3 sin )
(1.24)
For an axisymmetric triaxial extension stress state, = /6. As such, equation (1.22)
gives
_
J
2
=
I
1
3
sin + c cos
1
6

3 (3 + sin )
(1.25)
For I
1
= 0 this reduces to
_
J
2
=
6c cos

3 (3 + sin )
(1.26)
From equations (1.24) and (1.26) it is evident that for a given value of , the Mohr-
Colulomb failure criterion predicts a lower strength in triaxial extension than in
triaxial compression.
Finally, it is also of interest to investigate the special case of simple shear, for which
= 0. In this case
_
J
2
=
I
1
3
sin + c cos

.
1.5.2 Determination of Model Parameter Values
Associated with the Mohr-Colulomb failure criterion are two model parameters: the angle
of internal friction and the cohesion intercept c (units of FL
2
). The values of these
two parameters are determined from standard laboratory experiments such axisymmetric
triaxial tests. The loading should of sucient magnitude so as to induce ultimate or failure
10 V. N. Kaliakin
Course Notes
University of Delaware
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering
conditions.
1.6 Drucker-Prager Criterion
In 1952 Drucker and Prager [7] presented the rst major extension of metal plasticity to
geomaterials. The so-called Drucker-Prager failure criterion represents an attempt to create
a smooth, three-dimensional approximation to the Mohr-Coulomb failure surface in the same
manner as the von Mises criterion approximates the Tresca criterion for metals.
Mathematically the Drucker-Prager failure criterion is expressed in the following manner:
f (I
1
, J
2
) =
_
J
2
I
1
k = 0 (1.27)
where and k are positive model parameters. The parameter is related to the opening
angle of the pyramid. The parameter k is related to the tensile strength of the material.
For > 0, the surface is a circular cone with its axis equally inclined to the coordinate
axes (and thus coincident with the hydrostatic axis), and its apex in the tension octant. In
three-dimensional stress space, the section of this cone through the octahedral plane is a
circle. When plotted in the hydrostatic pressure-deviatoric stress plane, the cone consists of
two lines with identical slope. This implies that the friction angles in triaxial compression
and extension are dierent.
1.6.1 Determination of Model Parameter Values
Associated with the two-parameter Drucker-Prager failure criterion are two positive model
parameters and k. If the failure surface is plotted in I
1

J
2
stress invariant space, it
appears as a straight line (Figure 1.3). The

J
2
axis intercept of this line is k; the slope of
this line is the arctangent of .
k
2
a
J
1
I
tan
-1
Figure 1.3: Drucker-Prager Failure Criterion Plotted in I
1

J
2
Space
Given the parameter and a value of the Lode angle , if the intersections of the Drucker-
Prager and Mohr-Coulomb surfaces are to coincide for a certain value of , then the following
11 V. N. Kaliakin
Course Notes
University of Delaware
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering
relationship must hold [14]:
=
1
3
sin
cos +
1

3
sin sin
(1.28)
A similar relationship between the cohesion intercept c and the parameter k can likewise
be obtained [14]; viz.,
k =
c cos
cos +
1

3
sin sin
(1.29)
Of particular interest are axisymmetric triaxial states of stress. For axisymmetric triaxial
compression = /6. Substituting this in equations (1.28) and (1.29) gives
=
2 sin

3 (3 sin )
, k =
6c cos

3 (3 sin )
(1.30)
The Drucker-Prager failure surface thus intersects with the Mohr-Coulomb surface at the
points associated with axisymmetric triaxial compression. The remainder of the Drucker-
Prager cone circumscribes the Mohr-Coulomb surface in the octahedral plane and represents
an outer bound to this surface (Figure 1.4).
Figure 1.4: Mohr-Coulomb and Drucker-Prager Yield Surfaces Viewed down the Hydrostatic
Axis
12 V. N. Kaliakin
Course Notes
University of Delaware
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering
For axisymmetric triaxial extension = /6. Substituting this in equations (1.28) and
(1.29) gives
=
2 sin

3 (3 + sin )
, k =
6c cos

3 (3 + sin )
(1.31)
The Drucker-Prager failure surface thus intersects with the Mohr-Coulomb surface at the
points associated with axisymmetric triaxial extension. The remainder of the Drucker-Prager
cone inscribes the Mohr-Coulomb surface in the octahedral plane.
Finally, for the special case of plane strain, and k are given by [2]
=
tan
_
9 + 12 (tan )
2

1/2
, k =
3c
_
9 + 12 (tan )
2

1/2
(1.32)
.
Remark: If = 0, the Drucker-Prager failure surface reduces to the von Mises criterion
(a circular cylinder in three-dimensional stress space). Indeed, the Drucker-Prager
criterion is often referred to as the extended von Mises criterion [1, 6].
Remark: For use in the context of conventional incremental plasticity theory, the Drucker-
Prager failure criterion is used as a yield surface. The incremental stress-strain rela-
tions can then be derived based on the yield criterion and the concepts of normality
and ow rule.
Remark: Similar to the Mohr-Coulomb criterion the Drucker-Prager failure criterion ac-
counts for the eect of hydrostatic pressure. Unlike the Mohr-Coulomb criterion the
Drucker-Prager failure criterion includes the inuence of the intermediate principal
stress.
Remark: The Drucker-Prager failure surface is smooth and thus convenient to use math-
ematically. The traces of the surface on meridian planes are straight lines. Con-
sequently, reasonable results would only be expected for a rather limited range of
pressures over which the curvature of the actual failure envelope can be neglected.
Remark: Similar to the von-Mises criterion, the Drucker-Prager failure criterion is indepen-
dent of the third stress invariant (e.g., or ). This fact manifests itself in that the
trace of the failure surface in the octahedral plane is a circle. The shear strength in
compression and extension will thus be the same, which disagrees with experimental
observations.
.
13 V. N. Kaliakin
Course Notes
University of Delaware
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering
1.7 Extended Tresca Criterion
In an attempt to generalize the Tresca failure criterion for application to soils, Drucker [6]
proposed an extended Tresca criterion. This two-parameter formulation can be written in
the following form:
max
_
1
2

,
1
2

,
1
2

_
I
1
k = 0 (1.33)
where and k have the same meaning as for the Drucker-Prager failure criterion.
The extended Tresca criterion is a right hexagonal pyramid whose cross-section in the
octahedral plane is a regular hexagon. By contrast, the Mohr-Coulomb criterion is an ir-
regular hexagon. Both criteria share the common shortcoming of corners, thus somewhat
compromising their treatment mathematically.
.
Remark: Unlike the Mohr-Coulomb criterion, the extended Tresca criterion predicts the
same strength in compression and extension, which is known to at odds with experi-
mental observations.
.
1.8 Concluding Remarks
Two major drawbacks were associated with constitutive relations based on the Mohr-Coulomb
or Drucker-Prager yield criteria. These were:
The absence of work-hardening
The prediction of excessive dilation, due to the use of an associative ow rule
The rst drawback was eliminated by Drucker, Gibson and Henkel [8], who introduced
the concept of work-hardening plasticity into soil mechanics. Two other important concepts
were also introduced in this paper. The rst was the notion of a work-hardening cap to
the perfectly plastic yield surface such as the Mohr-Coulomb or Drucker-Prager type. The
second was the use of the current soil density (or void ratio) as the state (internal) variable
or strain-hardening parameter used to determine the successive (loading) cap surfaces.
The problem of excessive dilation was remedied by extending the ideas of classical plastic-
ity to a non-associative form in which the plastic potential and yield surfaces are separately
dened [4]. However, this modication eliminated the validity of the use of limit theorems for
bounding collapse loads and created doubts about the uniqueness of the solutions obtained.
14 V. N. Kaliakin
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[8] Drucker, D. C., R. E. Gibson, and D. J. Henkel, Soil Mechanics and Work-Hardening
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[9] Hvorslev, M. J.,

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[10] Mohr, O.,

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15
Course Notes
University of Delaware
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering
[13] Zienkiewicz, O. C. and G. N. Pande, Some Useful Forms of Isotropic Yield Surfaces
for Soil and Rock Mechanics, Chapter 5 in Finite Elements in Geomechanics, edited by
G. Gudehus. London: Wiley-Interscience: 179-190 (1977).
[14] Zienkiewicz, O. C., A. H. C. Chan, M. Pastor, B. A. Schreer, and T. Shiomi, Com-
putational Geomechanics, with Special Emphasis to Earthquake Engineering, Chichester:
John Wiley and Sons (1999).
16 V. N. Kaliakin