Metrology: Output Signal

Copyright (c) Benny Thrnberg
1
Metrology

Input Signal

Output
Signal
Amplifier at work
2

Outline
What are amplifiers used for
The unit decibel
Operational Amplifiers
The feedback loop
The ideal operational amplifier
The non inverting amplifier circuit
The inverting amplifier circuit
Common mode and Differential mode
The difference amplifier
The instrumentation amplifier
3

Outline
The summing amplifier
The charge amplifier
Integration and derivation
Why both digital and analog signals
Digital to Analog conversion
Weighted resistors
R-2R network
Analog to Digital conversion
A simple converter
Successive approximation
Flash converter
Conversion error
Sample and hold circuit
Using a multiplexer
What to learn
4

U
IN
U
OUT

V
F -
The amplifier increases the magnitude of a signal by multiplying it
with a given constant F
V

IN
OUT
U
U
V
F =
U
IN

U
OUT

This is (ideally) a linear
transformation of the signal
A general measurement system
Sensor
Amplifier Filter AD-converter Signal processing
Depending on the application, this output signal is
connected to a display unit and/or to a host system for
further data or multi-signal processing.
6
The unit decibel
This unit is used to express the relationship between two
parameter values
For the amplifier as example, decibel is used to express the
amplification, i.e. the relationship between the
input- and the output signals
) ( log 20 dB
U
U
F
IN
OUT
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
7
The feedback loop

|
A
V

U
in
U
out

in
out
V
U
U
F =
( )
out in V out
U U A U = |
( )
in V V out
U A A U = + | 1
( ) | +
=
V
V
in
out
A
A
U
U
1 ( ) | +
=
V
V
V
A
A
F
1
8
The feedback loop

|
A
V

U
in
U
out

Increase the amplification such that

V
A
| |
1
1
=
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
=

V
V
A V
A
A
Lim F
V
The amplification in this circuit is thus determined by
external passive components and not by the amplifier itself
9
The ideal operational amplifier

The ideal OP has an infinite high amplification
0 =
i
0 =
+
i
There is no leakage currents on the input terminals
The output impedance is zero, the output has unlimited
capability to drive a load
10
The non-inverting amplifier circuit

Determine the voltage amplification F
V
in this circuit!
The OP amplifier used in this circuit is ideal except
from that it has an amplification limited to A
V
.
11

V
A
ut
u
d
u = ) 1 (
2
2
2
) 2 (
R
f
R
R
ut
u u
+
=
0
2
= u
d
u
in
u
2
u
in
u
d
u =
2
2
R
f
R
R
ut
u
in
u
v
A
ut
u
+
=
in
u
R
f
R
R
V
A
ut
u =
+
+ )
2
2
1
(
2
2
1
2
2
1
1
R R
R
A
A
R
f
R
R
V
A
in
u
ut
u
F
f
V
V
V
+
+
=
+
+
= =
2
2
) 3 (
R
f
R
R
ut
u
in
u
d
u
+
=
12

2
2
1
R R
R
A
A
in
u
ut
u
F
f
V
V
V
+
+
= =
( ) | +
=
V
V
V
A
A
F
1
|
A
V

U
in
U
ou
t

13

If you know that your OP can be approximated with an ideal OP,
then you do not need to consider A
V
in your calculations.
The OP input voltage can be assumed to be zero.
Virtual ground
The inverting OP input has in this case zero potential Virtual ground.
14
i i i = =
2 1
0
1
= R i
in
u
1
) 1 (
R
in
u
i =
0
2
= + R i
ut
u
2
) 2 (
R
ut
u
i = 1
2
R
R
in
u
ut
u
F
V
= =
2 1
) 2 1 (
R
ut
u
R
in
u
o =
) (
1
2
log 20 dB
R
R
in
u
ut
u
F
V
|
|
.
|
\
|
= = and with 180 degrees phase shift
15
Common Mode and Differential Mode
2
DM
CM
A
S
S V + =
2
DM
CM
B
S
S V =
Signal coming
from a sensor or
other equipment
0
2
B A CM
V V
S
+
= The common mode signal
B A
DM
V V S = The differential mode signal
B
V
A
V
16
The difference amplifier circuit
3 2
3
2
) 1 (
R R
R
u
i
V
+
=
) (
1
)
1
(
4 ut
u
i
V R
i
V u R =
1 4 1 4 1
u R
i
V R
i
V R
ut
u R + =
1
4
1
1
1 4
) 4 (
R
R
u
R
R R
i
V
ut
u
+
=
1
4
1
)
3 2
(
1
)
1 4
(
3
2
) 4 , 1 (
R
R
u
R R R
R R R
u
ut
u
+
+
=
1
2
3
U1
R1
R2
R3
R4
1
u
ut
u
2
u
+
+
+
V
i

i
i
+
+
-
-
4 1
1
) 3 , 2 (
R
ut
u
i
V
R
i
V u
=
0
1 1
=
i
V R i u
1
1
) 2 (
R
i
V u
i
=
0
4
= +
i
V R i
ut
u
4
) 3 (
R
ut
u
i
V
i
=
17
1 2 4 3 2 1
u u
ut
u R R R R R = = = = =
1
4
1
)
3 2
(
1
)
1 4
(
3
2
R
R
u
R R R
R R R
u
ut
u
+
+
=
1
2
3
U1
R1
R2
R3
R4
1
u
ut
u
2
u
+
+
+
V
i

i
i
+
+
-
-
R
kR
u
kR R R
R kR kR
u
ut
u R R R R k R R
+
+
= = = . = =
1
) (
) (
2
2 1 4 3
)
1 2
( u u k
ut
u =
18
Sensor
Difference amplifier
Output sensor signal
The Difference amplifier is important in measurement systems
because of its ability to sense a differential mode signal generated
by a sensor output.
Electromagnetic disturbance from the environment will generate a
common mode signal equally on both wires and will thus (ideally)
be completely suppressed.
19
A real world differential amplifier (not ideal) will also respond to a
common mode input signal F
CM

F
DM
is the amplification of a differential mode signal.
A quality measure of the differential amplifier is its ability to suppress
common mode signals and is given by the
Common Mode Rejection Ratio, defined as
) ( log 20 dB
F
F
CMRR
CM
DM
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
20
1
2
3
U1
R
R
R
R
R
A

R
A

R
F

U
1

U
2

U
OUT

i
i
U
B

U
A

An instrumentation amplifier is a difference amplifier with
very high input impedance
21
)
`
=
+ =
i R U U
i R U U
A B
A A
2
1
F
R
U U
i
2 1

=
1
2
3
U1
R
R
R
R
R
A

R
A

R
F

U
1

U
2

U
OUT

i
i
U
B

U
A

i R U U U U
A A B
2
1 2
=
( )
|
|
.
|
\
|
+ = =
F
A
A B out
R
R
U U U U U 2 1
1 2
22
This amplifier is used for the laboratory experiments in this course.
23
The main benefit of an instrumentation amplifier is its higher
input impedance than compared to a single OP-circuit.
This higher input impedance comes from the fact that input signals
are connected directly to the input of the close to ideal OP.
The whole instrumentation amplifier except the gain adjustment
resistor can be integrated on chip. Amplification is then set
externally by simply selecting value of R
F
.
24
)
2
3
1
1
2
1
( u
R
R
u
R
R
ut
u + =
0
3
2
2
1
1
= + +
R
u
R
u
R
ut
u
0
3 3 2
= R i u
3
2
3
) 2 (
R
u
i =
0
2 2 1
= R i u
2
1
2
) 1 (
R
u
i =
0
1 1
= i R
ut
u
1
1
) 3 (
R
ut
u
i =
0
3 2 1
) 4 ( = + + i i i
25
Physical quantity
Sensor output voltage
Physical quantity
Amplifier output voltage
Sensor
U
OF

U
OF

+
_
26
The charge amplifier
C
U
OUT
(t)
I
R
tot

C
tot

Sensor
The sensor can for example be a piezo chrystal used
to sense force, pressure or weight.
The virtual ground on the amplifier input forces all current generated
in the sensor to flow through the capacitor.
i
i
U
IN
=0
}
= = = dt t i
C C
t Q
t U t U
C
C OUT
) (
1 ) (
) ( ) (
27
Integration and derivation
}

= dt t U
C R
t U
IN OUT
) (
1
) (
C
R
U
OUT
(t)
U
IN
(t)
C
R
U
OUT
(t)
U
IN
(t)
dt
t dU
C R t U
IN
OUT
) (
) ( =
28
Why both digital and analog signals
AD-converter
DA-converter
Signal processing
in computer
Analog signal
input from sensor
Analog signal
output to actuator
Signal Processing
29
This converter requires
LOG
2
(no_of_discrete_levels)
number of different resistor
values
Weighted resistors
30
This converter requires only two different resistor values.
R-2R network
31
R-2R network
32
R-2R network
33
R-2R network
34
R-2R network
R I U
R I U
tot ut
ref
=
=
0
8
35
A simple converter
In worst case, 2
n
clock cycles are needed for an n-bit converter.
36
37
n clock cycles are needed
for an n-bit converter.
38
Flash converter
An n-bit converter requires 2
n
-1
number of comparators.
An n-bit converter requires 2
n

number of equal resistors.
A decoder (combinatorial network)
translates the 2n-1 comparator
outputs to n binary coded outputs.
+ Fast!
-Expensive!
- Power hungry
39
n
ref
U
LSB
2
1 =
Conversion error
1LSB
LSB
U
D A
U
D
n
ref
ut in
n
ref
ut
1
2 2
+ < s
40
Conversion error
Additional rule: Try to add one bit to the converted output.
If the new output results in lower conversion
error then select the new digital value else
select the old.
41
Conversion error
LSB
U
D A
n
ref
ut in
2
1
2
=
1LSB
42
Sample and Hold circuit
We need a circuit that can freeze the analog signal during
the time it takes for the AD-converter to perform the conversion.
The sample and hold circuit operates synchronous with the
converter and are both controlled by the S/H signal.
43
Sample and Hold circuit
44
Using a multiplexer
45
What to learn
Concepts
Definitions
Functional descriptions and analysis of circuits and sensors
46
Checkpoint questions
What is decibel, define?
If two amplifiers each amplifying 13 decibel are connected in
series, what will the total amplification be?
What is characteristic for an ideal OP?
What is meant by a difference amplifier and how do you
design such using one OP?
What is common and differential mode signals?
What is meant by CMRR, define?
47
Describe three different technologies for AD-conversion.
Describe a technology for DA-conversion.
Why is it hard to design a real world DA-converter using
weighted resistors (2R, 4R, 8R, )?
Describe the function of a DA-converter using R-2R resistor
network.
Describe the function of a AD-converter using successive
approximation.
How many comparators does an N-bits flash AD-converter
use?
48
How does a flash AD-converter work?
How large is the conversion error for an N-bits AD-converter,
a) for the general case and b) when using a 5V reference
voltage?

Metrology: Output Signal

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Metrology: Output Signal

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Copyright (c) Benny Thrnberg

You might also like