ECE 113 Lecture 04:

Mixers
OPERATION AND DESIGN CONCEPT

ECE 113: COMMUNICATION ELECTRONICS 1

Mixers: Basic Operation
• Mixers are nonlinear devices that has an output that is
the product of two inputs. The mixer symbol is shown
below.
𝑠𝑂 𝑡 = 𝑠1 𝑡 𝑠2 𝑡

• The inputs generally have different frequencies.

Assuming sinusoidal inputs, the output signal contains
the sum and difference of the input frequencies.
• Let 𝑠1 𝑡 be the message signal and 𝑠2 𝑡 be the local
oscillator.

ECE 113: COMMUNICATION ELECTRONICS 2

Mixers: Basic Operation
• Let 𝑠1 𝑡 = 𝐴1 cos 𝜔1 𝑡 and 𝑠2 𝑡 = 𝐴2 cos 𝜔2 𝑡, then
𝑠𝑂 𝑡 = 𝐴1 𝐴2 cos 𝜔1 𝑡 cos 𝜔2 𝑡
• Simplifying the equation:
𝐴1 𝐴2
𝑠𝑂 𝑡 = cos 𝜔1 + 𝜔2 𝑡 + cos 𝜔1 − 𝜔2 𝑡
2
• Output signal has two frequency components: sum
and difference of their individual frequencies.

ECE 113: COMMUNICATION ELECTRONICS 3

Mixers: Basic Operation
• Now, lets assume 𝑠1 𝑡 is an arbitrary signal with a
frequency spectrum 𝑆1 𝑓 and 𝑠2 𝑡 = cos 2𝜋𝑓𝐿𝑂 𝑡.
𝑠𝑂 𝑡 = 𝑠1 𝑡 cos 2𝜋𝑓𝐿𝑂 𝑡
• We are more interested in the frequency content of 𝑠𝑂 𝑡 .
Using the frequency shift property of Fourier transform:
ℱ 1
𝑠1 𝑡 cos 2𝜋𝑓𝐿𝑂 𝑡 ՜ 𝑆1 𝑓 − 𝑓𝐿𝑂 + 𝑆1 𝑓 + 𝑓𝐿𝑂
2
• Mixers are essential in shifting the frequency content of a
signal – most notably from a lower frequency to a higher
frequency (upconversion) for easier antenna design or vice
versa (downconversion) for easier signal processing.

ECE 113: COMMUNICATION ELECTRONICS 4

Baseband and IF
• A baseband signal is a signal with a narrow bandwidth
centered at 𝑓 = 0.
◦ Not to be confused with IF which is a frequency band used for
easier signal processing and circuit design.
◦ Sometimes the IF is on the baseband frequencies.

• If 𝑠1 𝑡 is a baseband signal, then its spectrum and its

spectrum after mixing 𝑠2 𝑡 = cos 2𝜋𝑓𝐿𝑂 𝑡 will look like:
𝑆1 𝑓

𝑆1 𝑓 − 𝑓𝐿𝑂 𝑆1 𝑓 + 𝑓𝐿𝑂

−𝑓𝐿𝑂 0 𝑓𝐿𝑂
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Baseband and IF
• Not all signals are baseband signals.
• All signals are real (i.e. has positive and negative
frequency components and has even symmetry). This is
the case for signals in intermediate frequency.
• Example: Speech signal – exists in 200 Hz to 4 kHz. Let
𝑠1 𝑡 be a speech signal. Its spectrum 𝑆1 𝑓 can be
rewritten as follow:
𝑆1 𝑓 = 𝑆1+ 𝑓 + 𝑆1− 𝑓 = 𝑆1+ 𝑓 + 𝑆1+ −𝑓
• 𝑆1+ 𝑓 is the positive frequency component and 𝑆1− 𝑓
is the negative frequency component. 𝑆1− 𝑓 = 𝑆1+ (−𝑓).

ECE 113: COMMUNICATION ELECTRONICS 6

Practical Signal Spectrum
• Spectrum of non-baseband real signals.
𝑆1 𝑓

𝑆1+ −𝑓 𝑆1+ 𝑓

Useful
information

−𝑓𝑠 0 𝑓𝑠

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Upconversion Spectrum
• Non-baseband signal mixed with 𝑠2 𝑡 = cos 2𝜋𝑓𝐿𝑂 𝑡.
Using the Modulation Property of the Fourier
Transform.
ℱ 1
𝑠1 𝑡 cos 2𝜋𝑓𝐿𝑂 𝑡 ՜ 𝑆1 𝑓 − 𝑓𝐿𝑂 + 𝑆1 𝑓 + 𝑓𝐿𝑂
2
1
𝑆𝑂 𝑓 = 𝑆1 𝑓 − 𝑓𝐿𝑂 + 𝑆1 𝑓 + 𝑓𝐿𝑂
2
• Knowing 𝑆1 𝑓 = 𝑆1+ 𝑓 + 𝑆1+ −𝑓 , then
1 +
𝑆𝑂 𝑓 = 𝑆1 −𝑓 − 𝑓𝐿𝑂 + 𝑆1+ 𝑓 + 𝑓𝐿𝑂 Useful signal
2
1 +
+ 𝑆1 𝑓 − 𝑓𝐿𝑂 + 𝑆1+ −𝑓 + 𝑓𝐿𝑂 Image signal
2

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Upconversion Spectrum
• Frequency spectrum of 𝑆𝑂 𝑓 and 𝑆1 𝑓 .
Original Spectrum

−𝑓𝑠 0 𝑓𝑠

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Image Frequencies
Useful Information Upper sideband

Images Lower sideband

−𝑓𝑠 − 𝑓𝐿𝑂 𝑓𝑠 − 𝑓𝐿𝑂 −𝑓𝑠 0 𝑓𝑠 −𝑓𝑠 + 𝑓𝐿𝑂 𝑓𝑠 + 𝑓𝐿𝑂

ECE 113: COMMUNICATION ELECTRONICS 10

Deleting the Images
• There are a number of ways to delete the image
frequencies. One way is using a bandpass filter to
select either the upper sideband or lower sideband.
• This is called an image rejection filter. This effectively
reduces the bandwidth needed for transmission.

ECE 113: COMMUNICATION ELECTRONICS 11

Downconversion Spectrum
• Assume that the input signal is 𝑠Ƹ1 𝑡 is the useful
information in the upconverted spectrum. Then the Fourier
transform is:
1 +
መ
𝑆1 𝑓 = 𝑆1 −𝑓 − 𝑓𝐿𝑂 + 𝑆1+ 𝑓 + 𝑓𝐿𝑂
2
• After mixing with a local oscillator, the output spectrum:
1 +
መ
𝑆𝑂 𝑓 = 𝑆1 −𝑓 + 𝑆1+ 𝑓
4
1 +
+ 𝑆1 𝑓 + 2𝑓𝐿𝑂 + 𝑆1+ −𝑓 − 2𝑓𝐿𝑂
4
• A scaled version of the message 𝑠1 𝑡 appears at the
output along with some higher frequency components.

ECE 113: COMMUNICATION ELECTRONICS 12

 Downconversion Spectrum
Upconverted Message

−𝑓𝑠 − 2𝑓𝐿𝑂 −𝑓𝑠 − 𝑓𝐿𝑂 −𝑓𝑠 0 𝑓𝑠 𝑓𝑠 + 𝑓𝐿𝑂 𝑓𝑠 + 2𝑓𝐿𝑂

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 Image Frequencies
Images

Message Estimate

−𝑓𝑠 − 2𝑓𝐿𝑂 −𝑓𝑠 − 𝑓𝐿𝑂 −𝑓𝑠 0 𝑓𝑠 𝑓𝑠 + 𝑓𝐿𝑂 𝑓𝑠 + 2𝑓𝐿𝑂

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Deleting the Images
• In downconversion, a lowpass filter is used to delete
the high frequency components of the output signal.

• In practical systems, the receiver antenna picks up the

transmitted signal and some signals outside the
frequency of transmission. What if there is a
transmission in the adjacent frequency band?

ECE 113: COMMUNICATION ELECTRONICS 15

The Image Problem
• Assume that the received signal frequency spectrum
looks like the plot below.

−𝑓𝑠 − 𝑓𝐿𝑂 𝑓𝑠 − 𝑓𝐿𝑂 −𝑓𝑠 + 𝑓𝐿𝑂 𝑓𝑠 + 𝑓𝐿𝑂

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The Image Problem (in theory)
• Knowing that 𝑆መ1 𝑓 = 𝑆1+ −𝑓 − 𝑓𝐿𝑂 + 𝑆1+ 𝑓 + 𝑓𝐿𝑂 and assuming that the
interference signal is:
𝑆𝑁 𝑓 = 𝛿 𝑓 − 𝑓𝐿𝑂 + 𝑓𝑠 + 𝛿 𝑓 + 𝑓𝐿𝑂 − 𝑓𝑠
• Then the input spectrum to the mixer:
𝑆𝑖 𝑓 = 𝑆መ1 𝑓 + 𝑆𝑁 𝑓
• After downconversion, the spectrum at the output of the mixer will be:
1 + 1 +
𝑆𝑂 𝑓 = 𝑆1 −𝑓 + 𝑆1 𝑓 + 𝑆1 𝑓 + 2𝑓𝐿𝑂 + 𝑆1+ −𝑓 − 2𝑓𝐿𝑂
+
2 2
1 1
+ 𝛿 𝑓 − 𝑓𝑠 + 𝛿 𝑓 + 𝑓𝑠 + 𝛿 𝑓 + 𝑓𝑠 − 2𝑓𝐿𝑂 + 𝛿 𝑓 − 𝑓𝑠 + 2𝑓𝐿𝑂
2 2
• Re-arranging the terms:
1
𝑆𝑂 𝑓 = 𝑆1+ −𝑓 + 𝑆1+ 𝑓 + 𝛿 𝑓 − 𝑓𝑠 + 𝛿 𝑓 + 𝑓𝑠
2
1 +
+ 𝑆1 𝑓 + 2𝑓𝐿𝑂 + 𝑆1+ −𝑓 − 2𝑓𝐿𝑂 + 𝛿 𝑓 + 𝑓𝑠 − 2𝑓𝐿𝑂 + 𝛿 𝑓 − 𝑓𝑠 + 2𝑓𝐿𝑂
2
Filtered out

ECE 113: COMMUNICATION ELECTRONICS 17

 The Image Problem
• Resulting downconverted spectrum:

Message signal is
corrupted by
interference signal –
Image Problem

−𝑓𝑠 − 2𝑓𝐿𝑂 −𝑓𝑠 − 𝑓𝐿𝑂 𝑓𝑠 − 𝑓𝐿𝑂 −𝑓𝑠 0 𝑓𝑠 −𝑓𝑠 + 𝑓𝐿𝑂 𝑓𝑠 + 𝑓𝐿𝑂 𝑓𝑠 + 2𝑓𝐿𝑂

ECE 113: COMMUNICATION ELECTRONICS 18

Just filter it out before mixer!

• However, assuming that the upconverted spectrum is

centered at 1 𝐺𝐻𝑧 and the bandwidth of transmission
is 1 𝑀𝐻𝑧, then the Q factor of your filter is 103 (more
on this later.
• A high Q factor is impractical! It may be possible in
theory but practical limits are in place. How do we deal
with the image problem?
ECE 113: COMMUNICATION ELECTRONICS 19
Solution: Selective Receiver
• Remember this design?

• Superheterodyne receiver improves receiver

selectivity and rejects the image frequencies of the
interference signal before completely demodulating it.
• Image signal and desired signal will not overlap in an
intermediate frequency between the RF and final IF
bands.

ECE 113: COMMUNICATION ELECTRONICS 20

Image Rejection Ratio
• The ratio of the desired signal power (𝑃𝑑𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑 ) to the
power of the image signal (𝑃𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑒 ) at the output of a
superheterodyne receiver.
• Also known as Image Frequency Rejection Ratio.

𝑃𝑑𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑
𝐼𝑀𝑅𝑅 =
𝑃𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑒
𝑃𝑑𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑
𝐼𝑀𝑅𝑅 𝑑𝐵 = 10 log
𝑃𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑒

ECE 113: COMMUNICATION ELECTRONICS 21

Another: Phase Discriminator
• Recall SSB generation. Any image frequencies at the
adder will be cancelled due to having different signs.
• However, this design is more complicated and more
costly than the superheterodyne architecture. It does
provide a superior 𝐼𝑀𝑅𝑅.

ECE 113: COMMUNICATION ELECTRONICS 22

Practical Mixer
• How to implement mixers? There is no circuit device
that can perform multiplication of signals.
• Mixers are nonlinear devices which means it adds
distortion. Therefore, mixing is a process that
deliberately distorts the signal. Most nonlinear devices
can be used as a mixer!
• Recall the input-output relationship of a general
nonlinear device:
𝑣𝑜 = 𝑎0 + 𝑎1 𝑣𝑖 + 𝑎2 𝑣𝑖2 + 𝑎3 𝑣𝑖3 + ⋯

ECE 113: COMMUNICATION ELECTRONICS 23

Practical Mixer
• Let 𝑣𝑖 = 𝑉1 cos 𝜔1 𝑡 + 𝑉2 cos 𝜔2 𝑡, then the output until
the second order terms are:
𝑣𝑜 = 𝑎0 + 𝑎1 𝑉1 cos 𝜔1 𝑡 + 𝑉2 cos 𝜔2 𝑡
+𝑎2 𝑉1 cos 𝜔1 𝑡 + 𝑉2 cos 𝜔2 𝑡 2 + ⋯
• Simplifying the expression:
𝑣𝑜
= 𝑎0 + 𝑎1 𝑉1 cos 𝜔1 𝑡 + 𝑎1 𝑉2 cos 𝜔2 𝑡 + 𝑎2 𝑉12 1 + cos 2𝜔1 𝑡
+ 𝑎2 𝑉22 1 + cos 2𝜔2 𝑡 + 2𝑎2 𝑉1 𝑉2 cos 𝜔1 𝑡 cos 𝜔2 𝑡
Multiplied Terms

ECE 113: COMMUNICATION ELECTRONICS 24

 IMD Spectrum -
Downconversion
When characterizing
Desired Signals
IMD, it is assumed
that 𝜔1 and 𝜔2 are

𝜔2 − 𝜔1

𝜔1 + 𝜔2
close to each other,
therefore
𝜔1 − 𝜔2 < 𝜔1 , 𝜔2

𝜔1
𝜔2
This is the
downconversion
process

ECE 113: COMMUNICATION ELECTRONICS 25

 Upconversion
Assuming 𝜔1 and 𝜔2
Desired Signals
are far apart, we get
the upconversion

𝜔2 − 𝜔1
𝜔1 + 𝜔2
process.
𝜔2 > 𝜔1
Note:
-desired outputs

𝜔2
𝜔1

𝜔2 − 𝜔1 and 𝜔2 +
𝜔1 are near a
spurious 𝜔2 output.
-find a bias point that
can avoid this.

ECE 113: COMMUNICATION ELECTRONICS 26

Devices Capable of Mixing
• Nonlinear devices transfer functions:
𝑉𝑑
Diode
𝐼𝑑 = 𝐼𝑠 𝑒 𝑉𝑡 −1
𝑉𝐶𝐸 𝑉𝐶𝐸
𝐼𝐶 = 𝐼𝑆 𝑒 𝑉𝑡 −1 1+ BJT
𝑉𝐴
𝐾0
𝐼𝐷 = 𝑉𝐺𝑆 − 𝑉𝑇 2 1 + 𝜆 𝑉𝐷𝑆 − 𝑉𝐷𝑆𝑎𝑡 MOSFET
2
• There are diode-based mixers and transistor-based
mixers.

ECE 113: COMMUNICATION ELECTRONICS 27

Diode-Based Design
• Consider the circuit below. The output current at the
diode is equal to the expression.

𝑣1 𝑡 +𝑣2 𝑡
𝑖𝑜 𝑡 = 𝐼𝑆 𝑒 𝑉𝑇 −1

ECE 113: COMMUNICATION ELECTRONICS 28

Output current of diode
• Invoke Taylor series:
𝑖𝑜 𝑡
1
= 𝐼𝑆 ቊ𝑣1 𝑡 + 𝑣2 𝑡 + 𝑣1 𝑡 + 𝑣2 𝑡 2
2!
1 3
1
+ 𝑣1 𝑡 + 𝑣2 𝑡 + 𝑣1 𝑡 + 𝑣2 𝑡 4 + ⋯ ቋ
3! 4!
• Let 𝑣1 𝑡 = 𝑉1 cos 𝜔1 𝑡 and 𝑣2 𝑡 = 𝑉2 cos 𝜔2 𝑡 .
• Consider only until the second harmonic.
𝑖𝑜 𝑡
1 2
= 𝐼𝑆 𝑉1 cos 𝜔1 𝑡 + 𝑉2 cos 𝜔2 𝑡 + 𝑉1 cos 𝜔1 𝑡 + 𝑉2 cos 𝜔2 𝑡
2

ECE 113: COMMUNICATION ELECTRONICS 29

Output current of diode
• Consider only until the second harmonic.
𝑖𝑜 𝑡
1 2
= 𝐼𝑆 ቊ𝑉1 cos 𝜔1 𝑡 + 𝑉2 cos 𝜔2 𝑡 + 𝑉1 cos 2 𝜔1 𝑡
2
1
+ 𝑉2 cos 2 𝜔2 𝑡 + 𝑉1 𝑉2 cos 𝜔1 𝑡 cos 𝜔2 𝑡 + ⋯ ቋ
2
• A multiplication term is in the output current along
with other frequency components.

ECE 113: COMMUNICATION ELECTRONICS 30

Actual Circuit
• Single Ended Diode Mixer
Filters out high
frequency components

Isolates 𝑐 𝑡 and 𝑥 𝑡 Separates DC and

RF components

ECE 113: COMMUNICATION ELECTRONICS 31

Diode-Based Design
• Needs a way to isolate the local oscillator 𝑐 𝑡 to both
IF and RF components of the mixer.
◦ High frequency circuits make use of diplexers.
◦ High Q filters can also be used for low frequency circuits.

• Bias point for the diode is needed. DC and high

frequency components must be separated.
◦ DC blocking capacitors
◦ RF choke inductors

ECE 113: COMMUNICATION ELECTRONICS 32

Transistor-Based Design
• Hybrid-pi model of any transistor.

ECE 113: COMMUNICATION ELECTRONICS 33

Finding a Bias
• In amplifiers, the quiescent point chosen is when the
transconductance, 𝑔𝑚 , is approximately constant for all
frequencies.
◦ Saturation region for FETs.
◦ Forward Active region for BJTs.

• The transconductance is computed as:

𝜕𝐼𝐶 𝜕𝐼𝐷
𝑔𝑚 = ՜ BJTs 𝑔𝑚 = ՜ FETs
𝜕𝑉𝐵𝐸 𝜕𝑉𝐺𝑆
• Generally, the amplifier output is:
𝑣𝑜 𝑡 = −𝑔𝑚 𝑟𝑜 𝑣𝑖 𝑡

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 Finding a Bias
• In general, since 𝐼𝐶 and 𝐼𝐷 is a function of 𝑉𝐵𝐸 and 𝑉𝐺𝑆 ,
respectively, then 𝑔𝑚 is also a function of 𝑉𝐵𝐸 or 𝑉𝐺𝑆 .
• A typical 𝑔𝑚 plot vs. bias:
Amplifier Bias Point
• Choose bias point such that
◦ Change in 𝑔𝑚 is maximum.

• Time varying
∞ bias results to:

𝑔𝑚 𝑡 = 𝑔0 + 2 ෍ 𝑔𝑛 cos 𝑚𝜔0 𝑡
𝑛=0

• Normally, LO is used as bias.

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Effective Small Signal Model

ECE 113: COMMUNICATION ELECTRONICS 36

Output Signal
• By voltage division in the input side of the small signal
model:
𝑍𝜋 𝑍𝜋
𝑣𝜋 𝑡 = 𝑣𝑟𝑓 𝑡 = 𝑉𝑅𝐹 cos 𝜔𝑅𝐹 𝑡
𝑍𝜋 + 𝑍𝑔 𝑍𝜋 + 𝑍𝑔
𝑣𝑏𝑒 𝑡 = 𝑉𝐵𝐸 cos 𝜔𝑅𝐹 𝑡 − 𝜙𝐵𝐸
• The output current of the small signal model is:
𝑖𝑜 𝑡 = 𝑔𝑚 𝑣𝜋 𝑡
• Small 𝑉𝐵𝐸 :
𝑖𝑜 𝑡
= 𝑔0 𝑉𝜋 cos 𝜔𝑅𝐹 𝑡 − 𝜙𝐵𝐸
+ 2𝑔1 𝑉𝜋 cos 𝜔𝐿𝑂 𝑡 cos 𝜔𝑅𝐹 𝑡 − 𝜙𝐵𝐸

ECE 113: COMMUNICATION ELECTRONICS 37

Actual Circuit

ECE 113: COMMUNICATION ELECTRONICS 38

Mixer Parameters
• RF, LO, and IF Frequency Range
• Maximum input power ratings
• Conversion Loss
• Noise Figure (NF)
• Linearity: IIP3 and 1-dB compression point

ECE 113: COMMUNICATION ELECTRONICS 39

Conversion Loss
• Measures the power lost due to the mixer. Accounts
for the power lost due to spurious signals and resistive
losses.
𝑃𝑅𝐹
𝐿𝑐 = 10 log ≥ 0 𝑑𝐵
𝑃𝐼𝐹
• 𝑃𝑅𝐹 - available RF input power
• 𝑃𝐼𝐹 - available IF output power
• This parameter is strongly affected by LO signal
power. Lower power could mean that it cannot switch
the operating modes of the transistors and diodes.

ECE 113: COMMUNICATION ELECTRONICS 40

Mixer Noise Figure
• Diode-based mixers generally have lower NF than
transistor-based mixers.
• Depends on whether the input is SSB or DSB.
Assuming the same amplitude, then
𝐹𝑆𝑆𝐵 = 2𝐹𝐷𝑆𝐵
• Note that the output noise power is still the same. The
SSB signal of the same amplitude only has half the
power of a DSB signal with the same amplitude.

ECE 113: COMMUNICATION ELECTRONICS 41

Mixer Linearity and Port
Isolation
• Essentially, mixers are nonlinear devices that
deliberately distorts the signals. However, it has a high
IIP3 from 15 to 30 dBm.
• LO and RF (& IF) ports should be decoupled. This
ensures that the input signals must not interfere with
each other.
• Potential problem for receivers directly connected
with the antenna – can radiate unwanted signals from
the receiver chain.

ECE 113: COMMUNICATION ELECTRONICS 42

Types of Mixers
• Single-ended diode/transistor mixer
• Balanced Mixer
• Image-reject Mixer
• Differential FET Mixer and Gilbert Cell Mixer
• Double-balanced Mixer

ECE 113: COMMUNICATION ELECTRONICS 43

 Types of Mixers
Mixer Type Number of RF Input RF-LO Conversion Third-Order
Diodes Match Isolation Loss Intercept
Single Ended 1 Poor Fair Good Fair
Balanced 2 Good Poor Good Fair
(900)
Balanced 2 Fair Excellent Good Fair
(1800)
Double 4 Poor Excellent Excellent Good
balanced
Image reject 2 or 4 Good Good Good Good

ECE 113: COMMUNICATION ELECTRONICS 44

References
• D. Pozar, Microwave Engineering, 4th ed. John Wiley &
Sons, Inc., 2012

EEE 107: INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS 45