ECE 113 Lecture 07:

Filters
FILTERING OPERATION AND BASIC DESIGN

ECE 113: COMMUNICATION ELECTRONICS 1

Superheterodyne Receiver
• Key element: FILTERS.

• Filters are used to improve the selectivity of receivers,

reject images, reduce spurious responses and much
more – a must have for any communication system.

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 Types of Filters
• According to function

Lowpass Highpass Bandpass Bandstop All-pass

Phase-shaping
Provide Frequency Selectivity
or equalization

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Types of Filters
• According to implementation

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Types of Filters
• According to implementation

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Magnitude vs. Frequency

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Frequency Response
𝑉ത𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑠
𝑇 𝑠 =
𝑉ത𝑖𝑛 𝑠
Magnitude
𝑉ത𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑗𝜔
𝑇 𝑠 = 𝑗𝜔 =
𝑉ത𝑖𝑛 𝑗𝜔
Phase
𝑉ത𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑗𝜔
∠𝑇 𝑠 = 𝑗𝜔 = ∠ = ∠𝜃𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝜔 − ∠𝜃𝑖𝑛 𝜔
ത
𝑉𝑖𝑛 𝑗𝜔

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Designing Filters: Where to
Start?
•Perfectionist?
◦ Ideal Low Pass Filter

•RF Engineer
◦ Continuous-Time, First-Order, Low-Pass Filter
The Basic
Passive Filters

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The Basic Low-pass Filter
• Basic Filter Design: Example 1, RC low-pass filter
• Output voltage:
1
𝑣𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝑣𝑖𝑛
1 + 𝑠𝑅𝐶
• Transfer function:
1
𝑇 𝑠 =
1 + 𝑠𝑅𝐶
𝑣𝑜𝑢𝑡
• As frequency increases, decreases. This is a low-
𝑣𝑖𝑛
pass filter. It “passes” low frequencies and filters out
high frequencies.

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 Magnitude Response

•20dB/dec roll-off (1st order)

 Phase Response

•90o phase difference between pass-band and stop-band (1st order)

Recall: Pole-Zero Plot
Pole-Zero Map for RC Filter

𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑠 1
𝑇 𝑠 = = 𝑠
𝑉𝑖𝑛 𝑠 1+
𝜔𝑐

◦ 1 pole: 𝑝1 = −𝜔𝑐
◦ 1 zero: 𝑧1 → ∞ 𝑝1 = −𝜔𝑐
The LC Resonator

𝑉𝐶 1Τ𝑠𝐶 1 1
= = 2 =
𝑉𝐼 𝑠𝐿 + 1Τ𝑠𝐶 𝑠 𝐿𝐶 + 1 1 + 𝑠 −𝐿𝐶 1 − 𝑠 −𝐿𝐶
• Poles at:
1 1
𝑠=𝑗 𝑠 = −𝑗
𝐿𝐶 𝐿𝐶

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RLC Filter

𝑉𝐶 1Τ𝑠𝐶 1Τ𝐿𝐶
= = 2
𝑉𝐼 𝑅 + 𝑠𝐿 + 1Τ𝑠𝐶 𝑠 + 𝑠 𝑅Τ𝐿 + 1Τ𝐿𝐶
• Poles at:
𝑅 1 𝑅2
𝑠 =− ±𝑗 − 2
2𝐿 𝐿𝐶 4𝐿

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Pole Quality Factor
• Typical filters include pairs
of complex conjugate
poles.
• Quality factor of poles:

𝜔𝑃
𝑄𝑃 =
2𝜎𝑋
RLC Filter

𝑅 1 𝑅2 1
𝜔0 = − ± − 2 =
2𝐿 𝐿𝐶 4𝐿 𝐿𝐶
𝑅
𝛼=
2𝐿
𝜔0 𝐿
𝑄= =
2𝛼 𝑅 𝐶

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Pole Quality Factor
• Pole location: −𝛼 ± 𝑗𝛽

𝜔0
𝑄=
2𝛼

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𝑄 and 𝜔0 Characteristics
𝜔02
𝑇 𝑠 =
𝜔
𝑠 2 + 0 𝑠 + 𝜔02
𝑄

𝐻𝜔02
𝑇 𝑠 = if there is gain
𝜔
𝑠 2 + 0 𝑠 + 𝜔02
𝑄

• How to implement this?

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Active Bi-Quad
Filters

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Active Bi-Quad Filters
• Re-arrange the terms:
𝜔02 𝐻
𝑇 𝑠 = = 2
𝜔 𝑠 1
𝑠 2 + 0 𝑠 + 𝜔02 + 𝑠+1
𝑄 𝜔02 𝑄𝜔 0
𝑉𝐶 𝐻
= 2
𝑉𝐼 𝑠 1
2 + 𝑄𝜔 𝑠+1
𝜔0 0

• Can be implemented using op-amps.

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Bi-Quad Filters Implementation
• Passive RC
◦ Only Real Poles

• Terminated LC
◦ Passive (without gain)

• Active Bi-Quad
◦ Sallen-Key Bi-quad filters – 1 op amp
◦ Tow-Thomas Bi-quad filters – 3 op amps

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 Sallen-Key Low-Pass Bi-quad
Filter
𝐺
𝐻 𝑠 =
𝑠 𝑠2
1+ +
𝜔𝑃 𝑄𝑃 𝜔𝑃2

1
𝜔𝑃 =
𝑅1 𝐶1 𝑅2 𝐶2

• Single gain element 𝜔𝑃

• All poles, no zeros 𝑄𝑃 =
1 1 1−𝐺
+ +
•OK with discrete or monolithic implementations 𝑅1 𝐶1 𝑅2 𝐶1 𝑅2 𝐶2
• Sensitive to parasitics
• HP, BP versions

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 Sallen-Key Low-Pass Bi-quad
Filter
𝑉𝑂 𝑅𝐵
=1+ =𝐾
𝑉− 𝑅𝐴

𝑉𝑏 𝑉𝑎
=
𝑅2 + 1/𝑠𝐶2 1/𝑠𝐶2

𝑉𝐼 − 𝑉𝑏 𝑉𝑏 − 𝑉𝑎 𝑉𝑏 − 𝑉2
• Single gain element = +
𝑅1 𝑅2 1/𝑠𝐶1
• All poles, no zeros
•OK with discrete or monolithic implementations
𝑉2 = 𝐴 𝑉𝑎 − 𝑉−
• Sensitive to parasitics
• HP, BP versions

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 Sallen-Key Low-Pass Bi-quad
Filter
𝐻𝜔02
𝑇 𝑠 =
𝜔
𝑠 2 + 0 𝑠 + 𝜔02
𝑄

𝐻=𝐾

1
𝜔02 =
𝐶1 𝐶2 𝑅1 𝑅2
• Single gain element
𝑄 𝐶1 𝐶2 𝑅1 𝑅2
• All poles, no zeros =
𝜔0 𝐶2 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 + 𝐶1 𝑅1 1 − 𝐾
•OK with discrete or monolithic implementations
• Sensitive to parasitics
• HP, BP versions

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Another Approach on a Bi-
quad
𝐻
𝑇 𝑠 = 2
𝑠 ൘ + 𝑠ൗ
𝜔02 𝑄𝜔0 + 1
• Let 𝑠𝑛 = 𝑠/𝜔0
𝐻
𝑇 𝑠 = 𝑠
𝑠𝑛2 + 𝑛ൗ𝑄 + 1
𝑉𝑂 𝑠𝑛2 + 𝑠𝑛 Τ𝑄 + 1 = 𝐻𝑉𝐼
𝑉𝑂 𝑠𝑛2 = 𝐻𝑉𝐼 − 𝑠𝑛 𝑉𝑂 Τ𝑄 − 𝑉𝑂
1
𝑉𝑂 = 2 𝐻𝑉𝐼 − 𝑠𝑛 𝑉𝑂 Τ𝑄 − 𝑉𝑂
𝑠𝑛

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 Another Approach on a Bi-
quad
1
𝑉𝑂 = 2 𝐻𝑉𝐼 − 𝑠𝑛 𝑉𝑂 Τ𝑄 − 𝑉𝑂
𝑠𝑛

−𝐻𝑉𝐼
𝑉𝐼 𝑉𝑂

−𝐻𝑉𝐼 + 𝑠𝑉𝑂 Τ𝑄 + 𝑉𝑂 = −𝑠 2 𝑉𝑂
1
𝐻𝑉𝐼 − 𝑠𝑉𝑂 Τ𝑄 − 𝑉𝑂 = 𝑠𝑉𝑂
𝑠
1
𝐻𝑉𝐼 − 𝑠𝑉𝑂 Τ𝑄 − 𝑉𝑂 = 𝑉𝑂
𝑠2

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Tow Thomas Bi-quad Filter
1
𝑉𝑂 = 2 𝐻𝑉𝐼 − 𝑠𝑛 𝑉𝑂 Τ𝑄 − 𝑉𝑂
𝑠𝑛

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Tow Thomas Bi-quad Filter

𝑉𝑂 𝐻
= 2
𝑉𝐼 𝑠 ൘ + 𝑠ൗ
𝜔02 𝑄𝜔0 + 1

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Tow Thomas Bi-quad Filter

1 𝑅1 𝐶1 𝑅2
𝜔02 = 𝑄= 𝐻=
𝑅2 𝑅4 𝐶1 𝐶2 𝑅2 𝑅4 𝐶2 𝑅3

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Higher Order Filters
• One way to build filters with 𝑁 > 2 is to cascade
biquads and 1st order filters (e.g. Sallen-Key, Tow
Thomas, RC)

• Easy to implement
• Highly sensitive to component mismatch
◦ Good for low-Q filters only

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Bi-quad Complex Poles

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 Bi-quadratic Transfer Function
1
𝑇 𝑠 =
1+
𝑠
+
𝑠2 •Biquad Poles at:
𝜔𝑃 𝑄𝑃 𝜔𝑃2 𝜔𝑃
𝑝=− 1 ± 1 − 4𝑄𝑃2
2𝑄𝑃
1
𝑇 𝑗𝜔 =
𝑗𝜔 𝜔02 •Poles are real when QP ≤ ½
1+ −
𝜔𝑃 𝑄𝑃 𝜔𝑃2 •Lowpass Response:
𝑇 𝜔=0 =1
1 𝑇 𝜔→∞ =0
𝑇 𝑠 = 𝑗𝜔 =
𝑗𝜔 𝜔02 𝑇 𝜔 = 𝜔𝑃 = 𝑄𝑃
1+ −
𝜔𝑃 𝑄𝑃 𝜔𝑃2

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Normalized Frequency
• If we normalize frequency term (i.e. replace 𝜔Τ𝜔𝑃 →
𝜔):

1
𝑇 𝜔 =
𝑗𝜔
1+ − 𝜔2
𝑄

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Magnitude and Phase
Response
• Magnitude Response
1
𝑇 𝜔 =
2
2 2 𝜔
1−𝜔 +
𝑄

• Phase Response
𝜔ൗ
−1 𝑄
𝜃 = 0 − tan
1 − 𝜔2

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Frequency Response
1
𝑇 𝑠 =
𝑠 − 𝑝1 𝑠 − 𝑝2

1
𝑇 𝑠 =
1 − 𝜔2 2 + 𝜔 Τ𝑄 2

𝜔ൗ
−1 𝑄
𝜃 = 0 − tan
1 − 𝜔2

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Frequency Response

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Frequency Response

1
𝑇 𝑠 =
1 − 𝜔2 2 + 𝜔 Τ𝑄 2

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Magnitude Response

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Phase Response

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Filters accdg. to
Characteristics

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Filter Types
• According to Characteristics:
• Butterworth – maximally flat passband magnitude
response
• Chebyshev
◦ Type I – steeper transition band than Butterworth but has
passband ripples
◦ Type II – has stopband ripples but flatter passband gain

• Elliptic – equal stopband and passband ripple

• Bessel – maximally linear passband phase response

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 Butterworth Filter
• Maximally flat amplitude in
the pass band
𝜕 𝑁 𝑇 𝑗𝜔
อ =0
𝜕𝜔
𝜔=0
• Moderate phase distortion
• Example: a 5th order
Butterworth LP filter

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Butterworth Q
𝑗𝜔
• 2nd order Butterworth Filter
∗
1
𝑇 𝑗𝜔 𝑇 𝑗𝜔 =
1 + 𝜔 2𝑛

𝜋 𝜃
𝜃= 𝜎
4

1 𝜋 2
cos −1 = → 𝑄𝑃 =
2𝑄𝑃 4 2

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 Butterworth Poles
• All poles
• Number of poles is equal to
the filter order
• Poles located on the unit circle
with equal angles
• Example: a 5th order
Butterworth LP filter

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Chebyshev Response
2
1 2 2
𝑇 𝑗𝜔 = 2
𝐾𝑛 𝑗𝜔 = 𝜀𝐶𝑛 𝜔
1 + 𝐾𝑛 𝑗𝜔

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Chebyshev Response

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Chebyshev Polynomial
• Value between -1 to 1
𝑦 𝑥 = cos 𝑛𝑥
• Variable between -1 to 1
𝑥 = cos −1 𝜔
• Chebyshev Polynomial of Order n
𝐶𝑛 𝜔 = cos 𝑛 cos −1 𝜔
𝐶𝑛 𝜔 = cosh 𝑛 cosh−1 𝜔

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Chebyshev Polynomials
cos 𝑛𝜃 = 2 cos 𝑛 − 1 𝜃 − cos 𝑛 − 2 𝜃
𝐶𝑛 𝜔 = 2𝜔𝐶𝑛−1 𝜔 − 𝐶𝑛−2 𝜔
• First several Chebyshev Polynomials
𝐶0 𝜔 = cos 0 = 1
𝐶1 𝜔 = 𝜔
𝐶2 𝜔 = 2𝜔2 − 1
𝐶3 𝜔 = 4𝜔3 − 3𝜔
𝐶4 𝜔 = 8𝜔4 − 8𝜔2 + 1

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Chebyshev Response
2
1
𝑇𝑛 𝑗𝜔 =
1 − 𝜀 2 𝐶𝑛2 𝜔

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 Chebyshev Type-1 Filter
• Ripple in the pass band
• Compared to the Butterworth
filter
◦ Shorter transition band (steeper
slope)
◦ Poorer group delay

• More ripple in the passband

◦ Poorer phase response

• Example: a 5th order

Chebyshev I LP filter

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 Chebyshev Type-1 Poles
• All poles
◦ Located on an ellipse inside the
unit circle

• More ripple in the passband

◦ Narrower transition band
◦ Sharper cut-off
◦ Higher Q poles
◦ Poorer phase response

• Example: a 5th order

Chebyshev I LP filter

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 Adding Imaginary Zeroes
• Zeros substantially sharpen
the transition band
•At the expense of reduced
stop-band attenuation

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 Chebyshev Type-2 Filter
• No ripple in the pass band
• Nulls or notches in the stop
band
• Compared to Butterworth
◦ Shorter transition band (steeper
slope)
◦ Poorer group delay
• Pass band phase more linear
than Chebyshev I
• Example: a 5th order
Chebyshev II LP filter

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 Chebyshev Type-2 Filter
• Poles and finite zeros
◦ Numbers of poles – filter order 𝑁
◦ Number of finite zeros – 𝑁 − 1

• Poles located both inside and

outside the unit circle
• Complex conjugate zeros on
the 𝑗𝜔 axis
◦ Creates nulls in the stopband

• Example: a 5th order

Chebyshev II LP filter

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 Elliptic Filter
• Has ripples in the pass band
• Has nulls in the stop band
• Narrower transition band
compared to Butterworth and
both Chebyshevs
• Poorest phase response
• Example: a 5th order Elliptic LP
filter

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 Elliptic Poles
• Has poles and finite zeros
◦ 𝑁 poles (order 𝑁)
◦ 𝑁 − 1 finite zeros (located on the
𝑗𝜔 axis)

• Sharper cut-off
◦ Narrower transition band

• Pole Q higher than previous

filter types
• Example: a 5th order Elliptic LP
filter

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 Bessel Filters
• All poles
◦ Outside the unit circle
◦ Relatively low Q poles

• Maximally flat group delay

• Poor out-of-band
attenuation
• Example: a 5th order Bessel LP
filter

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 Bessel Poles
• All poles
◦ Outside the unit circle
◦ Relatively low Q poles

• Maximally flat group delay

• Poor out-of-band attenuation
• Example: a 5th order Bessel LP
Filter

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Summary: PZ Map Comparison

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Summary:
Magnitude Response Comparison

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Summary:
Phase Response Comparison

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References
• C. Bowick, RF Circuit Design, 2nd ed. Newnes, 2008.
• D. Pozar, Microwave Engineering, 4th ed. John Wiley &
Sons, Inc., 2012

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