DIGITAL SIGNAL PROCESSING

LECTURE #37, 38, 39

15TH – 17TH MAY 2023
 5.4 LTI SYSTEMS AS FREQUENCY – SELECTIVE FILTERS
5.4.2 Low-pass, high-pass and band-pass filters
(1) Low-pass filters
 Poles to be placed at angles equivalent to low frequencies.
 Zeros near or at unit circle, at angles, equivalent to high frequencies.

Example #1 𝑎 = 0.8
Simple low-pass filter with a
single pole. 𝐻 𝜔
1
𝐻 𝑧 =
1 − 𝑎𝑧 −1

1
𝐻 𝜔 =
1 − 𝑎𝑒 −𝑗𝜔
𝜔
 5.4 LTI SYSTEMS AS FREQUENCY – SELECTIVE FILTERS
5.4.2 Low-pass, high-pass and band-pass filters
(1) Low-pass filters
 Poles to be placed at angles equivalent to low frequencies.
 Zeros near or at unit circle, at angles, equivalent to high frequencies.

Example #2 𝑎 = 0.8
Simple low-pass filter with
unity gain at origin. 𝐻 𝜔
1−𝑎
𝐻 𝑧 =
1 − 𝑎𝑧 −1

1−𝑎
𝐻 𝜔 =
1 − 𝑎𝑒 −𝑗𝜔
𝜔
 5.4 LTI SYSTEMS AS FREQUENCY – SELECTIVE FILTERS
5.4.2 Low-pass, high-pass and band-pass filters
(1) Low-pass filters
 Poles to be placed at angles equivalent to low frequencies.
 Zeros near or at unit circle, at angles, equivalent to high frequencies.

Example #3 𝑎 = 0.8
Simple low-pass filter with
elimination of higher frequencies. 𝐻 𝜔

1 − 𝑎 1 + 𝑧 −1
𝐻 𝑧 =
2 1 − 𝑎𝑧 −1

1 − 𝑎 1 + 𝑒 −𝑗𝜔
𝐻 𝜔 =
2 1 − 𝑎𝑒 −𝑗𝜔 𝜔
 5.4 LTI SYSTEMS AS FREQUENCY – SELECTIVE FILTERS
5.4.2 Low-pass, high-pass and band-pass filters
(2) High-pass filters
 Poles to be placed at angles equivalent to high frequencies.
 Zeros near or at unit circle, at angles, equivalent to low frequencies.

Example #1 Example #2

𝐻ℎ𝑝 𝑧 = 1 − 𝐻𝑙𝑝 𝑧 Reflecting the positions of

poles and zeros across
𝐻ℎ𝑝 𝜔 = 1 − 𝐻𝑙𝑝 𝜔 imaginary axis.
 5.4 LTI SYSTEMS AS FREQUENCY – SELECTIVE FILTERS

5.4.2 Low-pass, high-pass and band-pass filters

(3) Band-pass filters
 Poles to be placed near (but inside) the unit circle, at angles, equivalent to the frequencies to be enhanced.

𝐻 𝜔

𝜔
 5.4 LTI SYSTEMS AS FREQUENCY – SELECTIVE FILTERS

5.4.2 Low-pass, high-pass and band-pass filters

(3) Band-pass filters
 Poles to be placed near (but inside) the unit circle, at angles, equivalent to the frequencies to be enhanced.

Example #5.4.2

Design a two-pole band-pass filter that has the center of its passband at 𝜔 = 𝜋/2, zero in its frequency
response characteristics at 𝜔 = 0, and 𝜔 = 𝜋 and a magnitude response of 1/ 2 at 𝜔 = 4𝜋/9.
 5.4.4 NOTCH FILTERS
 A band-stop filter where exactly one frequency (in each half) is stopped/eliminated.
 Notch filter is sued to generate “perfect nulls” with the help of zeros.
𝑧1 = 𝑒 𝑗𝜔0 , 𝑧2 = 𝑒 −𝑗𝜔0
 The transfer function of a notch filter becomes:
𝐻 𝑧 = 𝑏0 1 − 𝑒 𝑗𝜔0 𝑧 −1 1 − 𝑒 −𝑗𝜔0 𝑧 −1
 5.4.4 NOTCH FILTERS – SOLVING THE BW ISSUE
 The problem with FIR notch filters is that the bandwidth of the
notches is large.
 A simple way to create sharper notches is to place the zeros on
the unit circle and two complex conjugate poles at the same
angle with the zeros, close to the zeros but inside the unit
circle.
 The system function for the resulting notch filter is
𝑏0 1 − 𝑒 𝑗𝜔0 𝑧 −1 1 − 𝑒 −𝑗𝜔0 𝑧 −1
𝐻 𝑧 =
1 − 𝑟𝑒 𝑗𝜔0 𝑧 −1 1 − 𝑟𝑒 −𝑗𝜔0 𝑧 −1
1 − 2 cos 𝜔0 𝑧 −1 + 𝑧 −2
𝐻 𝑧 = 𝑏0
1 − 2𝑟 cos 𝜔0 𝑧 −1 + 𝑟 2 𝑧 −2
 5.4.5 COMB FILTERS

An extension of notch filter, to produce multiple (periodic) nulls across the frequency band.
Such a filter is constituted by a moving average filter:
𝑀−1
1
𝑦𝑛 = ෍ 𝑥 𝑛−𝑘
𝑀
𝑘=0

The system function of such a filter would be:

1 1 − 𝑧 −𝑀
𝐻 𝑧 =
𝑀 1 − 𝑧 −1
And its frequency response is:
𝜔𝑀
𝑀−1 1 sin
𝐻 𝜔 = 𝑒 −𝑗𝜔 2 2
𝑀 sin 𝜔
2
 5.4.5 COMB FILTERS
System function implies the presence of 𝑀 zeros placed around unit circle at equal angles:
2𝜋
𝑗 𝑀𝑘
𝑧𝑘 = 𝑒 , 𝑘 = 0, 1, … , (𝑀 − 1)

A pole-zero plot and the corresponding magnitude response of a comb filter with 𝑀 = 10.
 COMB REVERBERATOR – EXTENSION OF COMB FILTER
A comb reverberator is an IIR system defined by the difference equation:
𝑦 𝑛 = 𝑎 𝑦 𝑛 − 𝐷 + 𝑥 𝑛 , −1 < 𝑎 < 1
2𝜋
This system has 𝐷 poles, placed at 𝑝𝑘 = 𝑎 1/𝐷 𝑒 𝑗 𝐷 𝑘 , 𝑘 = 0, 1, … , 𝐷 − 1 .

A pole-zero plot and the corresponding magnitude response of a comb filter with 𝑎 = 0.7, 𝐷 = 5.
 5.4.5 ALL – PASS FILTERS
An all – pass filter is defined as a system that has a constant magnitude response for all frequencies, that is:
𝐻 𝜔 = 1, −𝜋 < 𝜔 ≤ 𝜋
For instance, a simple delay system is an all-pass filter:
𝑦 𝑛 =𝑥 𝑛−𝑘
𝐻 𝑧 = 𝑧 −𝑘

For a system with real-valued poles:

𝑧 −1 − 𝑎 In general:
𝐻 𝑧 =
1 − 𝑎𝑧 −1
𝑁𝑟 𝑁𝑐
For a system with complex-valued poles: 𝑧 −1
− 𝑎𝑘 𝑧 −1 − 𝑏𝑘∗ 𝑧 −1 − 𝑏𝑘
𝐻 𝑧 =ෑ ෑ
𝑧 −1 − 𝑏∗ 𝑧 −1 − 𝑏 1 − 𝑎𝑘 𝑧 −1 1 − 𝑏𝑘 𝑧 −1 1 − 𝑏𝑘∗ 𝑧 −1
𝐻 𝑧 = 𝑘=1 𝑘=1
1 − 𝑏𝑧 −1 1 − 𝑏∗ 𝑧 −1

What will be magnitude and phase response of above system?

5.4.5 ALL – PASS FILTERS

For a system with real-valued poles: For a system with complex-valued poles:
𝑧 −1 − 𝑎 𝑧 −1 − 𝑏∗ 𝑧 −1 − 𝑏
𝐻 𝑧 = 𝐻 𝑧 =
1 − 𝑎𝑧 −1 1 − 𝑏𝑧 −1 1 − 𝑏∗ 𝑧 −1
 5.5 INVERSE SYSTEMS AND DECONVOLUTION
5.5.1 Invertibility of Linear Time-Invariant Systems
A system is said to be invertible if there is a one-to-one correspondence between its input and output signals.
(For example, the system 𝒚 𝒏 = 𝒂 𝒙 𝒏 is invertible and 𝒚 𝒏 = 𝒙 𝒏 𝟐 is not.)
Mathematically:
𝑤 𝑛 = ℎ𝐼 𝑛 ∗ ℎ 𝑛 ∗ 𝑥 𝑛
Or,
ℎ𝐼 𝑛 ∗ ℎ 𝑛 = 𝛿 𝑛
 5.5 INVERSE SYSTEMS AND DECONVOLUTION
In terms of z – transform:
𝐻 𝑧 𝐻𝐼 𝑧 = 1
Or,
1
𝐻 𝑧 =
𝐻𝐼 𝑧

Example 5.5.1
Determine the inverse of the system with impulse response:
𝑛
1
ℎ𝑛 = 𝑢𝑛
2
Solution:
1
ℎ𝐼 𝑛 = 𝛿 𝑛 − 𝛿 𝑛 − 1
2
 5.5 INVERSE SYSTEMS AND DECONVOLUTION

 A system with all zeros inside the unit circle is a minimum-phase system.
 A system with all zeros outside the unit circle is a maximum-phase system.
 A system with one (or few) zeros inside, and one or few) zeros outside the unit circle, is a mixed-phase
system.
Decomposition of the transfer function of a mixed-phase system:
𝐻 𝑧 = 𝐻min 𝑧 𝐻ap 𝑧
Example:
Transform the following system into a minimum-phase and all-pass systems:
1 − 3𝑧 −1
𝐻 𝑧 =
1
1 − 𝑧 −1
2