Electronics - 09 - Frequency Response-1

FREQUENCY RESPONSE
9.1 High-Frequency Transistor Models

9.2 High-Frequency Response of CS Amplifiers
9.3 The Method of Open-Circuit Time Constants
9.4 High-Frequency Response of Common-Gate and Cascode Amplifiers
9.5 High-Frequency Response of Source Followers
9.6 High-Frequency Response of Differential Amplifiers
9.8 Low-Frequency Response of Discrete-Circuit CS Amplifiers
NTUEE Electronics - L. H. Lu 9-1

Frequency response of amplifiers
 Mid-band:
 The frequency range of interest for amplifiers
 Large capacitors act as short circuits and small capacitors act as open circuits
 Gain is constant and can be obtained by small-signal analysis
 High-frequency band:
 Small capacitors no longer act as open circuits (large capacitors still act as short circuits)
 The gain roll-off is mainly due to parasitic capacitances of the MOSFETs
 Gain drops at frequencies higher than 𝑓
 Low-frequency band:
 Large capacitors no longer act as short circuits (small capacitors still act as open circuits)
 The gain roll-off is mainly due to coupling and by-pass capacitors
 Gain drops at frequencies lower than 𝑓

9.1 High-Frequency Transistor Models
The MOSFET device

 There are basically two types of internal capacitance in the MOSFET
 Gate capacitance effect: the gate electrode forms a parallel-plate capacitor with gate oxide
 Junction capacitance effect: the source/body and drain/body are 𝑝𝑛-junctions at reverse bias
 The gate capacitive effect
 Overlap capacitance:
𝐶 = 𝑊𝐿 𝐶
 MOSFET in cutoff region:
𝐶 = 𝐶 = 𝐶 and 𝐶 = 𝑊𝐿𝐶
 MOSFET in triode region:
𝐶 =𝐶 = 𝑊𝐿𝐶 +𝐶
 MOSFET in saturation region:
𝐶 = 𝑊𝐿𝐶 +𝐶 and 𝐶 =𝐶
 The junction capacitance (reverse biased)

 Includes bottom and side wall capacitance
 The simplified expression are given by
𝐶 𝐶
𝐶 = and 𝐶 =
1 + 𝑉 /𝑉 1 + 𝑉 /𝑉
𝜖𝐴 𝐶 𝜖
𝐶= →𝐶 = =
𝑑 𝐴 𝑑

 The high-frequency MOSFET model
 Based on the low-frequency small-signal model including 𝑔 and 𝑟
 All parasitic capacitances (𝐶 , 𝐶 , 𝐶 and 𝐶 ) for MOSET in saturation are included
 Simplified high-frequency MOSFET model
 Source and body terminals are shorted (𝐶 is neglected) Hybrid-𝜋 model
 Capacitance 𝐶 is also neglected to simplify the analysis
 Typically, 𝐶 is the largest parasitic capacitance and plays
the most important role in amplifier frequency response
Complete hybrid-𝜋 model
T model
Simplified model

 The unity-gain frequency (𝑓 ) of the transistor
 Defined by the frequency at which the current gain of the MOSFET becomes unity
 Typically used as an indicator to evaluate the transistor’s high-frequency capability
 Smaller parasitic capacitances 𝐶 and 𝐶 are desirable for higher unity-gain frequency
𝐼 = 𝑠𝐶 𝑉 + 𝑠𝐶 𝑉
𝑉
𝑠𝐶 𝑉 + 𝐼 = 𝑔 𝑉
𝐼 𝑔 − 𝑠𝐶 𝑔
→ = ≈
𝐼 𝑠 𝐶 +𝐶 𝑠 𝐶 +𝐶
1 𝑔
→𝑓 = 𝑠𝐶 𝑉 𝑔 𝑉 0
2𝜋 𝐶 + 𝐶
 The unity-gain frequency can also be expressed as

𝑊 𝑔 = 4 mA/V, 𝐶 = 20 fF and 𝐶 = 5 fF
1 𝑔 1 𝜇 𝐶 𝐿 𝑉 3𝜇 𝑉
𝑓 = ≈ = → 𝑓 = 25.5 GHz
2𝜋 𝐶 + 𝐶 2𝜋 2 4𝜋𝐿
3 𝑊𝐿𝐶
 The unity-gain frequency is strongly influenced by the channel length
 Minimizing the channel length effectively increases the unity-gain frequency of MOSFET
 Higher 𝑓 for a given MOSFET by increasing the bias current (𝐼 ) or the overdrive voltage (𝑉 )

9.2 High-Frequency Response of CS Amplifiers
The discrete-circuit common-source amplifier

 The coupling and by-pass capacitors act as short circuits at high frequencies
 The MOSFET is represented by its high-frequency small-signal model with parasitic capacitances
High-frequency equivalent circuit
Simplified small-signal model
𝑅 = 𝑅 ||𝑅
𝑅 = 𝑅 ||𝑅 𝑅 = 𝑟 ||𝑅 ||𝑅 𝑉 =𝑉 𝑅 / 𝑅 +𝑅

 Analysis of the high-frequency transfer function:
𝑠C 𝑉 −𝑉
𝑅 = 𝑅 ||𝑅 𝑉
𝑉 −𝑉
𝑔 𝑉 𝑉
𝑉 =𝑉 𝑅 / 𝑅 +𝑅 𝑅
𝑠𝐶 𝑉 𝑅 𝑠𝐶 𝑉
𝑉 −𝑉
= 𝑠𝐶 𝑉 + 𝑠C 𝑉 −𝑉
𝑅
𝑉
𝑠C 𝑉 −𝑉 =𝑔 𝑉 + + 𝑠𝐶 𝑉
𝑅
𝑉 𝑔 𝑅 1 − 𝑠 𝐶 /𝑔
𝑠 =−
𝑉 1+𝑠 𝐶 +𝐶 1+𝑔 𝑅 𝑅 + 𝐶 +𝐶 𝑅 +𝑠 𝐶 𝐶 +𝐶 𝐶 +𝐶 𝐶 𝑅 𝑅
𝑉 𝑔 𝑅 𝑅 1 − 𝑠 𝐶 /𝑔
𝑠 =−
𝑉 𝑅 +𝑅 1+𝑠 𝐶 +𝐶 1+𝑔 𝑅 𝑅 + 𝐶 +𝐶 𝑅 +𝑠 𝐶 𝐶 +𝐶 𝐶 +𝐶 𝐶 𝑅 𝑅
1 − 𝑠/𝜔
=𝐴
1 + 𝑠/𝜔 1 + 𝑠/𝜔
 The transfer function is a second-order one with two poles (LHP) and one zero (RHP)
 The bandwidth is typically defined by the 3-dB frequency (𝑓 )
 The high-frequency response can be evaluated by
𝑔 𝑅 𝑅 𝐶
𝑅 +𝑅 1 − 𝑗𝜔 𝑔
𝑉
𝑗𝜔 = −
𝑉 1−𝜔 𝐶 𝐶 +𝐶 𝐶 +𝐶 𝐶 𝑅 𝑅 + 𝑗𝜔 𝐶 +𝐶 1+𝑔 𝑅 𝑅 + 𝐶 +𝐶 𝑅

The direct-coupling common-source amplifier
 The coupling and by-pass capacitors are not used, especially in integrated amplifier circuits
 The resistors (𝑅 and 𝑅 ) used for DC bias are no longer required
= 𝑟 ||𝑅
 The small-signal equivalent circuit is in the same form as the discrete-circuit example
 The transfer function has one RHP zero and two LHP poles and is given as
𝑉 1 − 𝑠 𝐶 /𝑔
𝑠 =− 𝑔 𝑅
1 − 𝑠/𝜔
=𝐴
1 + 𝑠/𝜔 1 + 𝑠/𝜔
 The high-frequency response can be evaluated by
𝑉 1 − 𝑗𝜔/𝜔
𝑗𝜔 = |𝐴 |
𝑉 1 + 𝑗𝜔/𝜔 1 + 𝑗𝜔/𝜔

 Determining the upper 3-dB frequency (𝑓 ):
 Dominant-pole case: 𝑓 is defined by the dominant pole (lowest-frequency) of the transfer function
 If dominant pole does not exist, the 3-dB frequency can be evaluated by the poles and zeros as:
1 + 𝑠/𝜔 1 + 𝑠/𝜔 1 + 𝑗𝜔/𝜔 1 + 𝑗𝜔/𝜔
𝐴 𝑠 = 𝐴 𝐹 (𝑠) = 𝐴 → 𝐴(𝑗𝜔) = 𝐴
1 + 𝑠/𝜔 1 + 𝑠/𝜔 1 + 𝑗𝜔/𝜔 1 + 𝑗𝜔/𝜔
1 1 + 𝜔 /𝜔 1 + 𝜔 /𝜔 1 + 𝜔 /𝜔 + 𝜔 /𝜔 + (𝜔 /𝜔 )(𝜔 /𝜔 )
𝐹 (𝑗𝜔 ) = = =
2 1 + 𝜔 /𝜔 1 + 𝜔 /𝜔 1 + 𝜔 /𝜔 + 𝜔 /𝜔 + (𝜔 /𝜔 )(𝜔 /𝜔 )
 Assuming 𝜔 is smaller than all pole and zero frequencies (a lowest frequency pole exists):
1 1+𝜔 1/𝜔 + 1/𝜔 1 1
𝐹 (𝑗𝜔 ) = ≈ →𝑓 ≈
2 1+𝜔 1/𝜔 + 1/𝜔 2𝜋 1/𝜔 + 1/𝜔 − 2 1/𝜔 + 1/𝜔
 The general form also applies for dominant-pole case:
1 1 𝜔
𝑓 ≈ ≈
2𝜋 1/𝜔 + 1/𝜔 − 2 1/𝜔 + 1/𝜔 2𝜋

Dominant-pole approximation for 2nd order transfer functions
 Transfer function of the amplifier:
𝑉 1 − 𝑠/𝜔 1 − 𝑠/𝜔
𝑠 =𝐴 =𝐴
𝑉 𝑠 𝑠 1+𝑏 𝑠+𝑏 𝑠
1+𝜔 1+𝜔
 Dominant-pole approximation (𝜔 ≪ 𝜔 ):
1 1 1 1
𝑏 = + ≈ →𝜔 ≈
𝜔 𝜔 𝜔 𝑏
1 1 𝑏 𝑏
𝑏 = ≈ →𝜔 ≈
𝜔 𝜔 𝜔 𝑏
 Poles can be calculated by the coefficients without solving the 2nd order equation
 Applying the approximation to the CS amplifier
𝑉 1 − 𝑠 𝐶 /𝑔
𝑠 =− 𝑔 𝑅
1 1
𝜔 ≈ =
𝑏 𝐶 +𝐶 1+𝑔 𝑅 𝑅 + 𝐶 +𝐶 𝑅
𝑏 𝐶 +𝐶 1+𝑔 𝑅 𝑅 + 𝐶 +𝐶 𝑅
𝜔 ≈ =
𝑏 𝐶 𝐶 +𝐶 𝐶 +𝐶 𝐶 𝑅 𝑅
 The 3-dB frequency is given by 𝜔 ≈ 𝜔 (is typically limited by 𝑅 and Miller effect)

CS amplifier with a small source resistance
 For the case where source resistance (𝑅 ) is zero
 The transfer function of the amplifier:
𝑉 1 − 𝑠 𝐶 /𝑔
𝑠 =− 𝑔 𝑅
𝑉 1+𝑠 𝐶 +𝐶 𝑅
 Mid-band gain:
𝐴 = −𝑔 𝑅
 The transfer function has one pole and one zero
1
𝜔 = →𝜔 ≈𝜔
𝐶 +𝐶 𝑅
𝑔
𝜔 =
𝐶
 Mid-band gain and zero are virtually unchanged

 The lowest-frequency pole no longer exists
 Bandwidth increases significantly
 Gain-bandwidth product:
 Gain rolls off beyond 𝜔 (20 dB/decade)
 The gain becomes 0 dB at unity-gain frequency (𝜔 )
𝑔
𝜔 = 𝐴 𝜔 =
𝐶 +𝐶

Miller’s theorem:
 A technique to replace the bridging component by two shunt components
 Assume the voltage gain across the bridging component (between node 1 and 2) is a constant 𝐾
 Bridging impedance 𝑍 can be equivalently divided into shunt 𝑍 at node 1 and shunt 𝑍 at node 2
𝑉 = 𝐾𝑉
𝑉 −𝑉 𝑉 − 𝐾𝑉 𝑉 𝑉 𝑍
𝐼= = = = →𝑍 =
𝑍 𝑍 𝑍/(1 − 𝐾) 𝑍 1−𝐾
𝑉 −𝑉 𝑉 /𝐾 − 𝑉 −𝑉 −𝑉 𝑍
𝐼= = = = →𝑍 =
𝑍 𝑍 𝑍/(1 − 𝐾 ) 𝑍 1 − 1/𝐾
𝑉 −𝑉 𝑉 − 𝐾𝑉 𝑉 (1 − 𝐾)
𝐼= = =
𝑍 𝑍 𝑍
𝑉 −0 𝑉 𝑉 (1 − 𝐾)
𝐼 = = =
𝑍 𝑍/(1 − 𝐾) 𝑍
0−𝑉 −𝐾𝑉 𝑉 (1 − 𝐾)
𝐼 = = =
𝑍 𝑍/(1 − 𝐾 ) 𝑍
 The derivation of Miller’s theorem is based on impedance 𝑍

 Bridging resistor case (𝑍 = 𝑅): 𝑅 = 𝑅/(1 − 𝐾) and 𝑅 = 𝑅/(1 − 1/𝐾)
 Bridging capacitor case (𝑍 = 1/𝑠𝐶): 𝐶 = 𝐶(1 − 𝐾) and 𝐶 = 𝐶(1 − 1/𝐾)

Simplified analysis of CS amplifier by Miller theorem:
 Miller’s theorem can be used to simplify circuit analysis with bridging components
 The bridging capacitance 𝐶 can be replaced by shunt capacitors 𝐶 and 𝐶
 The voltage gain from G to D is a constant at mid-band and can be defined as 𝐾 = −𝑔 𝑅
 Assume the gain remains nearly constant for frequencies not too far away from mid-band
 Bridging capacitance 𝐶 is equivalently divided into
𝐶 = 1 − 𝐾 𝐶 = 1 + 𝑔 𝑅 𝐶 ≫ 𝐶 (important for high-frequency response)
1 1
𝐶 = 1− 𝐶 = 1+ 𝐶 ≈𝐶
𝐾 𝑔 𝑅
 The gain 𝐾 is no longer a constant at higher frequencies due to the existence of capacitances
 Not suitable for circuit analysis at higher frequencies (far away from mid-band as gain is no longer 𝐾)

 Transfer function of the CS amplifier by using Miller’s theorem:
𝑉 1/𝑠(𝐶 + 𝐶 ) 𝑅 [1/𝑠(𝐶 + 𝐶 )]
𝑠 =− 𝑔
𝑉 𝑅 + 1/𝑠(𝐶 + 𝐶 ) 𝑅 + 1/𝑠(𝐶 + 𝐶 )
1
=− 𝑔 𝑅
1 + 𝑠𝑅 𝐶 +𝐶 1+𝑔 𝑅 1 + 𝑠𝑅 𝐶 + 𝐶 1 + 1/𝑔 𝑅
 The transfer function has two poles:

1
𝜔 =
𝑅 𝐶 +𝐶 1+𝑔 𝑅
1 1
𝜔 = ≈
1 𝑅 𝐶 +𝐶
𝑅 𝐶 +𝐶 1+
𝑔 𝑅
 The mid-band gain remains the same (does not change due to Miller’s approximation)
 The assumption that gain from G to D is constant no longer valid as frequency increases
 The transfer function can not be used to predict high-frequency response very accurately
(the second pole deviates significantly and the zero is neglected in this particular case)
 It can be used to simplify the analysis for the 3-dB frequency estimation if a dominant pole exists
 The equivalent response of the CS amplifier is typically approximated by a STC circuit:
1 𝐴
𝐴 𝑠 ≈− 𝑔 𝑅 =
1 + 𝑠𝑅 𝐶 +𝐶 1+𝑔 𝑅 1 + 𝑠/𝜔

9.3 The Method of Open-Circuit Time Constants
Open-circuit time constant method to evaluate amplifier bandwidth:

 Time constant circuit theorem (𝑘 capacitors and 𝑛 pole with 𝑘 ≥ 𝑛):
𝑠 𝑠 𝑠
1+𝜔 1+𝜔 .. 1+𝜔 1+ 𝑎 𝑠 +𝑎 𝑠 +⋯+𝑎 𝑠
𝐴 𝑠 =𝐴 =𝐴
𝑠 𝑠 𝑠 1 + 𝑏 𝑠 + 𝑏 𝑠 + ⋯+ 𝑏 𝑠
1+ 1+ .. 1 +
𝜔 𝜔 𝜔
𝐶𝑅 = 𝜏 = 𝐶 𝑅 +𝐶 𝑅 +⋯+𝐶 𝑅 = 𝑏
 Applicable for all cases (no matter capacitors interact or not)

 Capacitors do not interact: 𝑘 = 𝑛
 Capacitors interact: 𝑘 > 𝑛
 Dominant-pole case:
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
𝐶𝑅 = 𝜏 =𝑏 = + +⋯+ ≈ →𝑓 ≈ =
𝜔 𝜔 𝜔 𝜔 2𝜋 𝑏 2𝜋 ∑ 𝐶 𝑅
 Time-constant method can be used to obtain 𝑏 regardless how many poles exist
 The dominant pole (lowest frequency pole) can be estimated by 𝑏
 It’s a good approximation for 𝑓
 Useful technique to estimate the higher 3-dB frequency for circuits where the capacitors interact
 Time-constant method is used to evaluate 𝑓 without deriving the transfer function and poles
 The estimation is usually very good even a dominant pole does not exist

 Steps for 𝑓 estimation with open-circuit time-constant method:
 Set independent source to zero (𝑉 = 0)
 Consider each capacitor one at a time by set all other capacitors ideal (as open circuit)
 For each capacitor 𝐶 , find the total equivalent resistance 𝑅 seen by 𝐶
 Calculate the 3-dB frequency 𝑓 using the dominant pole approximation:
1 1 1 1
𝑓 ≈ =
2𝜋 𝑏 2𝜋 ∑ 𝐶 𝑅
Analysis of CS amplifier by using open-circuit time constants
𝑅 =𝑅 𝑅 =𝑅
𝑅 =𝑅 1+𝑔 𝑅 +𝑅
−𝑅 𝐼 +𝑉
𝑏 =𝐶 𝑅 +𝐶 𝑅 +𝐶 𝑅
1 1
𝜔 ≈ = −𝑅 𝐼
𝑏 𝐶 𝑅 +𝐶 𝑔 𝑅 𝑅 +𝑅 +𝑅 +𝐶 𝑅 −𝑅 𝐼 +𝑉
−𝑅 𝐼 𝑔 𝑅

Analysis by using Miller’s theorem and open-circuit time constants
 Bridging capacitance 𝐶 is replaced by 𝐶 and 𝐶
𝐾 ≡ 𝑉 /𝑉 ≈ −𝑔 𝑅
𝐶 =𝐶 1−𝐾 =𝐶 1+𝑔 𝑅
𝐶 =𝐶 1−𝐾 =𝐶 1 + 1/𝑔 𝑅 ≈𝐶
 Transfer function analysis:

𝑉 1
= −𝑔 𝑅
𝑉 1 + 𝑠/𝜔 1 + 𝑠/𝜔
1 1 1 1
𝜔 = = →𝑓 ≈ (for dominant-pole case)
𝐶 𝑅 𝐶 +𝐶 1+𝑔 𝑅 𝑅 2𝜋 𝐶 + 𝐶 1+𝑔 𝑅 𝑅
1 1
𝜔 = = (may not be a good approximation)
𝐶 𝑅 𝐶 +𝐶 𝑅
 Open-circuit time constant analysis based on Miller’s equivalent circuit:

𝑏 =𝐶 𝑅 +𝐶 𝑅 = 𝐶 +𝐶 1+𝑔 𝑅 𝑅 + 𝐶 +𝐶 1 + 1/𝑔 𝑅 𝑅
1 1 1 1
→𝑓 ≈ =
2𝜋 𝑏 2𝜋 𝐶 +𝐶 1+𝑔 𝑅 𝑅 + 𝐶 +𝐶 1 + 1/𝑔 𝑅 𝑅

Exercise 9-1: For the CS amplifier, the parameters are given as 𝑔 = 2 mA/V, 𝑟 = 20 k, 𝑅 = 20 k, 𝑅 =
20 k, 𝐶 = 20 fF, 𝐶 = 5 fF and 𝐶 = 25 fF.
(1) Derive the transfer function. Find the midband gain, pole and
zero frequencies.
(2) Use Miller equivalent circuit to evaluate the midband gain and
the 3-dB frequency (𝑓 ).
(3) Use time-constant method to evaluate the 3-dB frequency (𝑓 ).
(4) Evaluate the frequency response of the CS amplifier for 𝑅 = 0 .

9.4 High-Frequency Response of Common-Gate and Cascode Amplifiers
High-frequency response of the CG amplifier

 High-frequency circuit model for CG amplifier
 Frequency response analysis by deriving the transfer function with 𝑟 neglected:

𝑉 𝑔 𝑅 1
𝑠 =
𝑉 1+𝑔 𝑅 1 + 𝑠/𝜔 1 + 𝑠/𝜔
1
𝜔 =
1
𝐶 𝑅 ||
𝑔
1
𝜔 =
𝐶 +𝐶 𝑅
 The value of 𝑅 cannot be large for reasonable mid-band gain
 The upper 3-dB frequency is typically defined by 𝜔 ≈ 𝜔 ≪ 𝜔
 The poles of CG amplifier is usually much higher than the dominant pole of the CS amplifier

 Time constant method to evaluate the 3-dB frequency of CG amplifier by neglecting 𝑟 :
1
𝑏 =𝜏 +𝜏 =𝐶 𝑅 || + 𝐶 +𝐶 𝑅
𝑔
1 1
→𝜔 ≈ =
𝑏 1
𝐶 𝑅 || 𝑔 + 𝐶 +𝐶 𝑅
 The frequency response as 𝑟 is included (𝑟 has to be taken into account for IC amplifiers)
 The transfer function derivation is rather complex if 𝑟 is not negligible
 Time constant method can be used to evaluate the 3-dB frequency
1 1
𝜔 ≈ =
𝑏 𝑟 +𝑅
𝐶 𝑅 || 1 + 𝑔 𝑟 + 𝐶 +𝐶 𝑅 || 𝑔 𝑟 𝑅 +𝑟 +𝑅
𝜏 =𝐶 𝑅
𝑟 +𝑅 𝜏 = 𝐶 +𝐶 𝑅
=𝐶 𝑅 ||
1+𝑔 𝑟 = 𝐶 +𝐶 𝑅 || 𝑔 𝑟 𝑅 +𝑟 +𝑅

High-frequency response of the cascode amplifier
Time constant for 𝐶 Time constant for 𝐶 + 𝐶
𝑅 ||𝑅 ≈ 𝑔 𝑟 𝑟 ||𝑅
𝑅 =𝑅

Time constant for 𝐶 +𝐶 Time constant for 𝐶
𝑅
𝑟
𝑟 +𝑅 𝑅 =𝑅 1+𝑔 𝑅 +𝑅
𝑅 = 𝑟 ||𝑅 = 𝑟 ||
1+𝑔 𝑟
 The upper 3-dB frequency:

1 1
𝜔 ≈ =
𝑏 𝐶 𝑅 +𝐶 𝑅 + 𝐶 +𝐶 𝑅 + 𝐶 +𝐶 𝑅 ||𝑅
1
=
𝐶 𝑅 +𝐶 (𝑅 +𝑅 +𝑔 𝑅 𝑅 ) + 𝐶 +𝐶 𝑅 + 𝐶 +𝐶 𝑅 ||𝑅

 The effective time constant can be expressed as:
𝜏 =𝑅 𝐶 +𝐶 1+𝑔 𝑅 +𝑅 𝐶 +𝐶 +𝐶 + 𝑅 ||𝑅 𝐶 +𝐶
 The 1st term arises at input node; the 2nd term at the middle node; the 3rd term at output node
 In the case of a large 𝑅 :
 The first term dominates if the Miller multiplier is large (typically with large 𝑅 and 𝑅 )
 A small 𝑅 (to the order of 𝑟 ) is needed for extended bandwidth
 The mid-band gain drops as the value of 𝑅 decreases
 A trade-off exists between gain and bandwidth
 In the case of a small 𝑅 :
 The 1st term becomes negligible
 A large 𝑅 (to the order of 𝐴 𝑟 ) can be used to boost the amplifier gain
 The 3rd term dominates
 In the case of zero 𝑅 :
 Mid-band gain: 𝐴 ≈ −𝑔 𝑅 ||𝑅
 Dominant pole: 𝜔 ≈ 1/ 𝑅 ||𝑅 (𝐶 + 𝐶 )
 Unity-gain frequency: 𝜔 ≈ |𝐴 |𝜔 = 𝑔 /(𝐶 +𝐶 )
 Choose 𝑅 ||𝑅 larger than 𝑅 , which is defined in CS amplifier, by a factor of 𝐴
 The 𝑓 of the cascade will be lower than that of the CS amplifier by the same factor 𝐴

 Summary of CS and cascode amplifiers
 Assume 𝑅 = 0 and the dominant pole is determined by the RC time constant at output
 The load resistance of cascode amplifier is increased by a factor of 𝐴

Exercise 9-2: For the CG amplifier, the parameters are given as 𝑔 = 2 mA/V, 𝑟 = 20 k, 𝑅 = 20 k, 𝑅 =
5 k, 𝐶 = 20 fF, 𝐶 = 5 fF and 𝐶 = 25 fF.
(1) Derive the transfer function with 𝑟 neglected. Find the midband gain,
pole and zero frequencies.
Exercise 9-3: For the cascode amplifier, the parameters are given as 𝑔 = 2 mA/V, 𝑟 = 20 k, 𝑅 = 20 k,
𝑅 = 20 k, 𝐶 = 20 fF, 𝐶 = 5 fF , 𝐶 = 5 fF and 𝐶 = 25 fF.
(1) Find the midband gain and 3-dB frequency (𝑓 ).
(2) If a load of 𝐴 𝑅 is used, find the midband gain and 3-dB frequency (𝑓 ).

9.5 High-Frequency Response of Source Followers
The source follower:
 High-frequency transfer function:
𝑉 1 + 𝑠/𝜔
(𝑠) = 𝐴
𝑉 1+𝑏 𝑠+𝑏 𝑠
𝑅 𝑔 𝑅
𝐴 = = ≈1
𝑅 + 1/𝑔 1+𝑔 𝑅
𝑔
𝜔 =
𝐶
𝐶 𝐶 +𝐶
𝑏 = 𝐶 + 𝑅 + 𝑅
1+𝑔 𝑅 1+𝑔 𝑅
𝐶 𝐶 +𝐶 𝐶 +𝐶 𝐶
𝑏 = 𝑅 𝑅
1+𝑔 𝑅

 Dominant pole approximation for cases with real poles (𝑏 − 4𝑏 > 0):
1 + 𝑏 𝑠 + 𝑏 𝑠 = 1 + 𝑠/𝜔 1 + 𝑠/𝜔
1 𝐶 𝐶 +𝐶
𝜔 ≈𝜔 ≈ = 𝐶 + 𝑅 + 𝑅
𝑏 1+𝑔 𝑅 1+𝑔 𝑅
𝑏 𝐶 𝐶 +𝐶 𝐶 𝐶 +𝐶 𝐶 +𝐶 𝐶
𝜔 ≈ = 𝐶 + 𝑅 + 𝑅 / 𝑅 𝑅
𝑏 1+𝑔 𝑅 1+𝑔 𝑅 1+𝑔 𝑅
 Frequency response for non-dominant pole cases (real poles):

1 1
𝑓 ≈
2𝜋
1 1 1
+ −2
𝜔 𝜔 𝜔
 Frequency response for complex poles (𝑏 − 4𝑏 < 0 or 𝑄 > 0.5):
1 𝑠 𝑠 𝜔
1+𝑏 𝑠+𝑏 𝑠 = 1+ + →𝑠 + 𝑠+𝜔 Normalized to the low-frequency gain of each case
𝑄𝜔 𝜔 𝑄
1 𝑔 𝑅 +1
𝜔 = =
𝑏 𝑅 𝑅 𝐶 𝐶 +𝐶 𝐶 +𝐶 𝐶
𝑏 𝑔 𝑅 +1 𝑅 𝑅 𝐶 𝐶 +𝐶 𝐶 +𝐶 𝐶
𝑄= =
𝑏 𝐶 +𝐶 𝑔 𝑅 +1 𝑅 + 𝐶 +𝐶 𝑅

 Open-circuit time constant:
 Capacitance 𝐶 sees a resistance 𝑅
 Capacitance 𝐶 sees a resistance 𝑅 ||(1/𝑔 )
 Capacitance 𝐶 sees a resistance 𝑅
𝑖
𝑔 𝑣
+
𝑖 𝑅 𝑣
−
𝑖
𝑖 𝑅 −𝑣
𝑅
𝑖 𝑅 −𝑣 𝑣 𝑅 +𝑅
𝑅 = 𝑅 ||𝑔 𝑖 + =𝑔 𝑣 →𝑅 = =
𝑅 𝑖 1+𝑔 𝑅
𝑅 /𝑔 𝑅 +𝑅 𝐶 𝐶 +𝐶
𝑏 =𝐶 𝑅 +𝐶 +𝐶 = 𝐶 + 𝑅 + 𝑅
1/𝑔 + 𝑅 1+𝑔 𝑅 1+𝑔 𝑅 1+𝑔 𝑅
1 𝐶 𝐶 +𝐶
𝜔 ≈𝜔 ≈ = 𝐶 + 𝑅 + 𝑅
𝑏 1+𝑔 𝑅 1+𝑔 𝑅

Exercise 9-4: For the source follower, the parameters are given as 𝑔 = 2 mA/V, 𝑟 = 20 k, 𝑅 = 20 k,
𝑅 = 20 k, 𝐶 = 20 fF, 𝐶 = 5 fF and 𝐶 = 25 fF.
(1) Derive the transfer. Find the midband gain and 3-dB frequency (𝑓 ).

9.6 High-Frequency Response of Differential Amplifiers
Resistively loaded MOS differential amplifier:

 Differential-mode operation:
 Use differential half-circuit for analysis
 Similar to the case for common-source amplifier
 Approximated by a dominant-pole system for 𝑅 ≈ 0
𝑔 𝑅 1
𝐴 𝑠 = →𝜔 =
1 + 𝑠𝑅 (𝐶 + 𝐶 ) 𝑅 (𝐶 + 𝐶 )
 Common-mode operation:
 Common-mode gain 𝐴 is not zero if device mismatch exists
 Capacitance 𝐶 is usually significant and can not be neglected
 Capacitance 𝐶 results in a zero at lower frequency
 Other capacitance → high-frequency poles and zeros
𝑅 ∆𝑅
𝐴 =−
2𝑅 𝑅
𝑅 ∆𝑅 𝑅 ∆𝑅 1
𝐴 𝑠 =− =− + 𝑠𝐶
2𝑍 𝑅 2 𝑅 𝑅
𝑅 ∆𝑅 1
=− 1 + 𝑠𝐶 𝑅 →𝜔 =
2𝑅 𝑅 𝐶 𝑅

 Common-mode rejection ratio (CMRR):
 The frequency dependence of CMRR can be evaluated
 CMRR decreases at higher frequencies due to the pole of 𝐴 and the zero of 𝐴

Active-loaded MOS differential amplifier:
 High-frequency AC equivalent circuit:
𝐶 𝐶
𝐶
𝐶
𝐶
𝐶
𝐶 𝐶
𝐶 𝐶
𝐶 𝐶
𝐶 ≈𝐶 +𝐶 +𝐶 +𝐶 +𝐶
𝐶 ≈𝐶 +𝐶 +𝐶 +𝐶 +𝐶
 The influence of the parasitic capacitances are evaluated by 𝐶 and 𝐶 to simplify the analysis
 The simplified equivalent circuit is used to characterize the frequency response of the amplifier
 Differential-mode and common-mode analysis on full circuit is rather complex
 Similar techniques as introduced before are adopted for the analysis

Active-loaded MOS differential amplifier:
 Differential-mode operation:
 Transconductance (𝐺 ):
 Differential half-circuit for 𝑄 and 𝑄
 The source terminal is considered 0 V
𝑔 𝑉 /2
𝑉 =−
𝑔 + 𝑠𝐶
𝑔 𝑔 𝑉 /2 𝑔 𝑉 /2
𝐼 = −𝑔 𝑉 = =
𝑔 + 𝑠𝐶 1 + 𝑠𝐶 /𝑔
𝑔 𝑉 /2
𝐼 =𝐼 +𝐼 = +𝑔 𝑉 /2
1 + 𝑠𝐶 /𝑔
𝐼 1 + 𝑠𝐶 /(2𝑔 )
𝐺 (𝑠) ≡ =𝑔
𝑉 1 + 𝑠𝐶 /𝑔
 The pole and zero of 𝐺 (𝑠) are at very high frequencies
 Pole and zero near unity-gain frequency
𝑔 𝑓
𝑓 = ≈
2𝜋𝐶 2
2𝑔
𝑓 = ≈𝑓
2𝜋𝐶

 Output impedance:
𝑟 + 1/(𝑔 + 𝑠𝐶 ) 1
𝑅 = ≈
𝑔 𝑟 𝑔
1
𝑅 = 𝑟 ||𝑟 → 𝑍 = 𝑅 ||
𝑠𝐶
 Effect of 𝐶 is negligible (low-impedance node)
 Output impedance is determined by 𝑅 and 𝐶
 The transfer function of the amplifier:
𝑉 1 + 𝑠𝐶 /(2𝑔 ) 1
𝐴 𝑠 = =𝐺 𝑍 =𝑔 𝑅
𝑉 1 + 𝑠𝐶 /𝑔 1 + 𝑠𝐶 𝑅
1 + 𝑠𝐶 /(2𝑔 ) 1
=𝑔 𝑟 ||𝑟
1 + 𝑠𝐶 /𝑔 1 + 𝑠𝐶 𝑟 ||𝑟
Amplifier model
1 + 𝑠/𝜔
=𝐴
1 + 𝑠/𝜔 1 + 𝑠/𝜔
 Mid-band differential gain:

𝐴 =𝑔 𝑟 ||𝑟
 The dominant pole is typically

𝜔 = 1/𝐶 𝑟 ||𝑟

 Common-mode operation:
 Common-mode gain 𝐴 is not zero due to the circuit asymmetry
 The most dominant capacitance component is 𝐶
 By taking 𝐶 into account for the mid-band common-mode gain:
1 1 1
𝐴 =− →𝐴 (𝑠) ≈ − =− (1 + 𝑠𝐶 𝑅 )
2𝑔 𝑅 2𝑔 𝑍 2𝑔 𝑅
 Contributes to a zero at lower frequency
 Common-mode rejection ratio (CMRR):
 CMRR decreases at higher frequencies due to dominant pole
of 𝐴 (𝑠) and zero of 𝐴 (𝑠)
 The roll-off of CMRR at higher frequencies is typically due to
the zero of 𝐴 (𝑠)
1
CMRR 𝑠 ≈ 2𝑔 𝑅 𝑔 𝑟 ||𝑟
1 + 𝑠𝐶 𝑅 [1 + 𝑠𝐶 𝑟 ||𝑟 ]
Exercise 9-5: For the differential amplifier with a current mirror load, the parameters are given as 𝑔 =
2 mA/V, 𝑟 = 20 k, 𝑅 = 20 k, 𝑅 = 25 k, 𝐶 = 20 fF, 𝐶 = 5 fF , 𝐶 = 5 fF, 𝐶 = 25 fF and 𝐶 = 200 fF.
(1) Find the transfer function of the differential gain.
(2) Find the transfer function of the common-mode gain.
(3) Find the CMRR of the differential amplifier.

9.8 Low-Frequency Response of Discrete-Circuit CS Amplifiers
The CS amplifier
 Small-signal analysis for transfer function:
𝑅
𝑉 = 𝑉
1
𝑅 + +𝑅
𝑠𝐶
+
1
𝐼 =𝐼 = 𝑉
1 1 𝑉
𝑔 + 𝑠𝐶 ||𝑅
𝑅 −
𝑉 =− 𝑅 𝐼
1
𝑅 + 𝑅 +
𝑠𝐶
𝑉 𝑉 𝐼 𝑉 𝑠 𝑠+𝜔 𝑠
𝑠 = =𝐴
𝑉 𝐼 𝑉 𝑉 𝑠+𝜔 𝑠+𝜔 𝑠+𝜔 𝐼
𝑅
→𝐴 =− 𝑔 𝑅 ||𝑅 𝐼 +
𝑅 +𝑅
1 𝑉
→𝜔 = 𝑉
𝐶 𝑅 +𝑅
−
𝑔 + 1/𝑅 1 𝐼
→𝜔 = =
𝐶 𝐶 𝑅 ||1/𝑔
1
→𝜔 =
𝐶 𝑅 +𝑅
1
→𝜔 =
𝐶𝑅

 The complete frequency response (gain and phase) are determined by the transfer function analysis
 Determining the lower 3-dB frequency (𝑓 ) by dominant pole
 Coupling and by-pass capacitors result in a high-pass frequency response with 3 poles and 1 zero
 If poles are sufficiently separated in frequency (dominant-pole case):
 Bode plot can be used to evaluate the response for simplicity
 The lower 3-dB frequency is the highest-frequency pole
 The 𝑓 is typically the highest-frequency pole due to small resistance of 1/𝑔
1
𝜔 =
𝐶 𝑅 +𝑅
1
𝜔 =
1
𝐶 𝑅 ||
𝑔
1
𝜔 =
𝐶 𝑅 +𝑅
1
𝜔 =
𝐶𝑅
1
→𝑅 +𝑅 ≫𝑅 +𝑅 ≫
𝑔
→𝑓 ≪𝑓 ≪𝑓 ≈𝑓
( )

 Determining the lower 3-dB frequency (𝑓 ) by poles and zeros
 If poles are located closely, the lower 3-dB frequency (at a frequency higher than poles and zeros) can
be evaluated by the transfer function
𝑉 𝑠 𝑠+𝜔 𝑠
𝑠 =𝐴
𝑉 𝑠+𝜔 𝑠+𝜔 𝑠+𝜔
𝑉 𝑗𝜔 𝑗𝜔 + 𝜔 𝑗𝜔 1 1 + 𝜔 /𝑗𝜔 1
𝑗𝜔 = 𝐴 = 𝐴
𝑉 𝑗𝜔 + 𝜔 𝑗𝜔 + 𝜔 𝑗𝜔 + 𝜔 1 + 𝜔 /𝑗𝜔 1 + 𝜔 /𝑗𝜔 1 + 𝜔 /𝑗𝜔
𝑉 1 1 + 𝜔 /𝑗𝜔 1 𝐴
𝑗𝜔 = 𝐴 =
𝑉 1 + 𝜔 /𝑗𝜔 1 + 𝜔 /𝑗𝜔 1 + 𝜔 /𝑗𝜔 2
𝜔 𝜔 𝜔 𝜔 𝜔 𝜔 𝜔 𝜔
1+ 1+ 1+ = 2 1+ → 1+ + + ≈2 1+
𝜔 𝜔 𝜔 𝜔 𝜔 𝜔 𝜔 𝜔
1
𝑓 ≈ 𝜔 +𝜔 +𝜔 − 2𝜔
2𝜋
 Selecting values for coupling and by-pass capacitors

 These capacitors are typically required for discrete amplifier designs
 It is desirable to minimize the total capacitance for coupling and by-pass purposes
 Capacitance 𝐶 is first determined to satisfy 𝑓 ≈ 𝑓
 Capacitance 𝐶 and 𝐶 are chosen such that poles 𝑓 and 𝑓 are 5 to 10 times lower than 𝑓

 Determining the pole and zero frequencies by inspection if the capacitors do not interact
 A pole is determined by a capacitor with its associated resistance
 The independent source (input voltage) is removed
 Poles are determined by the 𝑅𝐶 time constants (# of poles = # of capacitors)
 A transmission zero is the value of 𝑠 at which the input does not reach the output
 Zeros can also be defined by inspection without deriving the transfer function
 Find the conditions for 𝑉 = 0 at the presence of 𝑉
 Coupling capacitor 𝐶 : 𝑉 = 0 as the capacitor is open (zero at 𝑠 = 0)
 By-pass capacitor 𝐶 : 𝑉 = 0 as 𝑍 = 𝑅 /(1 + 𝑠𝑅 𝐶 ) is open (zero at 𝑠 = −1/𝑅 𝐶 )
 Coupling capacitor 𝐶 : 𝑉 = 0 as the capacitor is open (zero at 𝑠 = 0)
𝐼 +
𝑉 𝑉
𝐼 −
𝜔 = 1/𝜏 𝜔 = 1/𝜏 𝜔 = 1/𝜏

The short-circuit time constant method:
 Time constant circuit theorem (𝑘 capacitors and 𝑛 pole → 𝑘 ≥ 𝑛):
𝑠+𝜔 𝑠+𝜔 𝑠+𝜔 𝑠 +𝑎 𝑠 +⋯ 𝑠 +𝑎 𝑠 +⋯

𝐴 𝑠 =𝐴 .. =𝐴 =𝐴
𝑠+𝜔 𝑠+𝜔 𝑠+𝜔 𝑠 + 𝜔 + 𝜔 +. . 𝜔 𝑠 +⋯ 𝑠 +𝑏 𝑠 +⋯
1 1
= =𝑏 =𝜔 + 𝜔 +. . 𝜔
𝜏 𝐶𝑅
 Applicable for all cases

 Capacitors do not interact: 𝑘 = 𝑛
 Capacitors interact: 𝑘 > 𝑛
 Dominant-pole case:
1 1 1
=𝜔 + ⋯+ 𝜔 ≈𝜔 →𝑓 =
𝐶𝑅 2𝜋 𝐶𝑅
 Time-constant method can be used to obtain 𝑏 regardless how many poles exist
 The dominant pole (highest frequency pole) can be estimated by 𝑏
 It’s a good approximation for 𝑓
 Useful technique to estimate the lower 3-dB frequency for circuits where the capacitors interact
 Time-constant method is used to evaluate 𝑓 without deriving the transfer function and poles
 The estimation is usually very good even a dominant pole does not exist

 Steps for 𝑓 estimation with short-circuit time-constant method:
 Set independent source to zero (𝑉 = 0)
 Consider each capacitor one at a time by set all other capacitors ideal (as short circuit)
 For each capacitor 𝐶 , find the total equivalent resistance 𝑅 seen by 𝐶
 Calculate the 3-dB frequency 𝑓 using the dominant-pole approximation:
1 1
𝑓 ≈
2𝜋 𝐶𝑅
 For the CS amplifier example:

𝐶 =𝐶 →𝑅 =𝑅 +𝑅
𝐶 = 𝐶 → 𝑅 = 𝑅 ||(1/𝑔 )
𝐶 =𝐶 →𝑅 =𝑅 +𝑅
1 1
𝑓 ≈
2𝜋 𝐶𝑅
1 1 1 1
= + +
2𝜋 𝐶 𝑅 +𝑅 1 𝐶 𝑅 +𝑅
𝐶 𝑅 || 𝑔

Exercise 9-6: For the discrete-circuit CS amplifier, the parameters are given as 𝑘 = 8 mAV , 𝑉 = 1 V, 𝑉 =
50 V, 𝑉 = 10 V, 𝑅 =𝑅 = 2 M, 𝑅 = 5 k, 𝑅 = 3.5 k, 𝑅 = 100 k, 𝑅 = 10 k, 𝐶 =𝐶 = 𝐶 = 1 μF.
(1) Find the low-frequency transfer function of the CS amplifier.
(2) Find the midband gain, pole and zero frequencies.
(3) Evaluate the lower 3-dB frequency (𝑓 ).
(4) Use short-circuit time-constant method to evaluate the lower 3-dB frequency (𝑓 ).

Electronics - 09 - Frequency Response-1

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FREQUENCY RESPONSE

9.1 High-Frequency Transistor Models

NTUEE Electronics - L. H. Lu 9-1

NTUEE Electronics - L. H. Lu 9-2

The MOSFET device

 The junction capacitance (reverse biased)

NTUEE Electronics - L. H. Lu 9-3

Complete hybrid-𝜋 model

NTUEE Electronics - L. H. Lu 9-4

 The unity-gain frequency can also be expressed as

NTUEE Electronics - L. H. Lu 9-5

The discrete-circuit common-source amplifier

High-frequency equivalent circuit

Simplified small-signal model

NTUEE Electronics - L. H. Lu 9-6

NTUEE Electronics - L. H. Lu 9-7

NTUEE Electronics - L. H. Lu 9-8

NTUEE Electronics - L. H. Lu 9-9

NTUEE Electronics - L. H. Lu 9-10

 Mid-band gain and zero are virtually unchanged

NTUEE Electronics - L. H. Lu 9-11

 The derivation of Miller’s theorem is based on impedance 𝑍

NTUEE Electronics - L. H. Lu 9-12

NTUEE Electronics - L. H. Lu 9-13

 The transfer function has two poles:

NTUEE Electronics - L. H. Lu 9-14

Open-circuit time constant method to evaluate amplifier bandwidth:

 Applicable for all cases (no matter capacitors interact or not)

NTUEE Electronics - L. H. Lu 9-15

Analysis of CS amplifier by using open-circuit time constants

NTUEE Electronics - L. H. Lu 9-16

 Transfer function analysis:

 Open-circuit time constant analysis based on Miller’s equivalent circuit:

NTUEE Electronics - L. H. Lu 9-17

NTUEE Electronics - L. H. Lu 9-18

High-frequency response of the CG amplifier

 Frequency response analysis by deriving the transfer function with 𝑟 neglected:

NTUEE Electronics - L. H. Lu 9-19

NTUEE Electronics - L. H. Lu 9-20

Time constant for 𝐶 Time constant for 𝐶 + 𝐶

NTUEE Electronics - L. H. Lu 9-21

 The upper 3-dB frequency:

NTUEE Electronics - L. H. Lu 9-22

NTUEE Electronics - L. H. Lu 9-23

NTUEE Electronics - L. H. Lu 9-24

NTUEE Electronics - L. H. Lu 9-25

The source follower:

 High-frequency transfer function:

NTUEE Electronics - L. H. Lu 9-26

 Frequency response for non-dominant pole cases (real poles):

NTUEE Electronics - L. H. Lu 9-27

NTUEE Electronics - L. H. Lu 9-28

NTUEE Electronics - L. H. Lu 9-29

Resistively loaded MOS differential amplifier:

NTUEE Electronics - L. H. Lu 9-30

NTUEE Electronics - L. H. Lu 9-31

NTUEE Electronics - L. H. Lu 9-32

NTUEE Electronics - L. H. Lu 9-33

 The transfer function of the amplifier:

 Mid-band differential gain:

 The dominant pole is typically

NTUEE Electronics - L. H. Lu 9-34

NTUEE Electronics - L. H. Lu 9-35