Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering CIVL 2510 Fluid Mechanics Laboratory Exercise 2: Flow Rate Measurements Group:

: 3B2 Members: 20036043 20017011 10100092 20020628 Lam Kin On Lee Kai Fung Lee Chun Yat Chow Jun Kang

Objectives: The objectives of this experiment laboratory exercise are: 1. 2. 3. 4. To understand how two different weirs can be used to determine the flow rate in an open channel. To determine the theoretical relationships for the flow rate over a weir. To carry out measurement to determine an experimental relationship for the flow rate over a weir. To obtain estimates for the discharge coefficient, relating the actual flow rate to the ideal flow rate.

Apparatus: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Hydraulics bench Rectangular-notch weir V-notch weir Vernier Height Gauge Stopwatch

Procedures: 1. 2. The rectangular notch weir was inserted into the hydraulic bench. The weir was fitted tightly by using screws to prevent leakage. The Vernier Height Gauge was adjusted so that its pointer just touched the bottom of the notch, then it was set to zero. The bottom was taken as datum, attention was given to make that Vernier Height Gauge did not slide along the mast during the experiment. The water supply was opened and water was allowed to flow over the weir. (H was not equal to zero). The water supply was adjusted. About a minute was waited for until the water flow over the weir had reached steady state (no longer changed with time). The head, H, was measured using the Vernier Height Gauge. Then a second measurement for H was obtained by different member of the group for better accuracy.

3. 4.

5.

6. 7. 8. 9.

The stopwatch was used to record the time it took for 10 litres of water to flow over the weir. This step was repeated for better accuracy. For small H, volume of water was reduced (to 5 litres). Steps 4 & 5 were repeated for at 10 different settings of the water supply. For each setting, the H and the corresponding times were measured and recorded.u Then, the rectangular notch weir was changed to V-notch weir. The weir was also fitted tightly by using screws to prevent leakage. Steps 2 to 6 were repeated for the V-notch weir. For the calculation of the discharge coefficient, record the breadth of the rectangular notch and the vertex angle for the V-notch weir.

Task 1 Derivation of equations The Bernoulli equation is: ( ) ( )

To find the velocity of the flow through the elementary area, assume point 1 is at the free surface of the reservoir, while point 2 is at the centre of elementary area, a vertical distance h below point 1. In addition assume that the velocity of the water behind the weir is negligible and the pressure at both points is atmospheric. The equation becomes ( ) ( )

For flow rate over a rectangular notch weir, From the result obtained above, Where

is the apparent ideal flow rate through elementary area is the elementary area in the plane of crest with a horizontal slot of length B and height

dh. To obtain the total ideal flow rate, integrate over the whole area, from to .

 While for the actual flow rate, a coefficient of discharge, equation becomes While for the flow rate over a V-notch weir, an additional parameter, the vertex angle is introduced. The length of the crest B is no longer a constant, but depends on distance h below the level of crest. Write length of crest at different level (in terms of h), will be introduced, the flow rate

The ideal flow rate equation becomes

. to .

To obtain the total ideal flow rate, integrate over the whole area, from

While for the actual flow rate, a coefficient of discharge, equation becomes Task 2 Estimation of experimental accuracy Few errors arise throughout the experiment. Sources of error:

will be introduced, the flow rate

1. Parallax error occurred when measuring the meniscus of the water level. To avoid it, the eye level should be placed at the bottom of the meniscus of water level. 2. Readings were taken when the water flow had not reached steady state. To avoid it, water supply should be adjusted and wait for about a minute to ensure the water reach the steady state. 3. Water vibration occur which affect the reading of H. To avoid it, care needs to be taken to ensure the no source could vibrate the water level.

4. Different people have different reaction time which caused the time taken was not accurate. 5. Vernier Height Gauge may not be exactly adjusted on the surface on water and this affected the reading of H. 6. Rectangular and V-notch weir may not be tightly fitted and this caused the leakage of water thus affected the total volume of water flow. 7. The water surface may not a horizontal plane. Reading was affected while reading was taken at different points of the water surface. Random errors versus Systematic errors: 1. Random error, also known as precision error, is the difference between the value of an individual measurement and the average of a number or repeated measurements. Smaller random error indicates better repeatability of the measurement. Random errors could be decreased by taking the average of a large number of individual measurements. 2. While systematic error, also known as accuracy error, is the difference between the value of an individual measurement and true value. It is related to experimental setup and procedure hence, it would not decrease by obtaining an average reading. When systematic errors are discovered, setup and procedure should be modified to obtain improvements before new measurements are obtained. Assumption on systematic errors: This assumption ignores the errors from measurement tools, which is Vernier Height Gauge for this laboratory exercise. Consequently, this would increase the different between actual value and the measured value since tools are assumed with high accuracy and precision with no error. However in all circumstances, measurement tools are not as accurate as we measured. Appropriate Number of Significant digits: The least significant numerical in a number implies the precision of the measurement (or the calculation based on the measurement). Below are the accuracy of the measurement tools used: Volume measurement Stop watch Vernier Height Gauge After performing calculations of several parameters, final result is expressed with 3 significant figures.

Task 3 Obtain experimental measurements Rectangular-notch Weir H (mm) Volume (L) 64.4 10 62.9 10 59.2 10 56.5 10 55.5 10 53.0 10 50.0 10 46.5 10 41.5 10 35.4 10

Trial 1 Trial 2 Trial 3 Trial 4 Trial 5 Trial 6 Trial 7 Trial 8 Trial 9 Trial 10

H (mm) 64.4 62.8 59.2 56.5 55.5 53.0 50.0 46.5 41.5 35.4

Time (s) 12.05 12.66 14.31 15.64 17.58 18.55 20.65 25.50 31.31 48.04

Time (s) 12.35 12.62 14.27 15.41 17.74 18.35 20.02 26.11 30.03 49.13

Trial 1 Trial 2 Trial 3 Trial 4 Trial 5 Trial 6 Trial 7 Trial 8 Trial 9 Trial 10

H (mm) 39.0 37.3 35.5 34.4 33.0 31.0 30.0 28.7 27.0 25.9

V-notch Weir H (mm) Volume (L) 39.0 5 37.3 5 35.6 5 34.4 5 33.0 5 31.0 5 30.0 5 28.7 5 27.0 5 25.9 5

Time (s) 11.24 12.63 12.81 15.01 17.15 20.11 21.41 23.74 27.35 30.92

Time (s) 10.91 12.62 12.97 15.25 16.83 20.15 21.40 24.07 27.20 30.88

Task 4 Calculations and Discussion Consider rectangular notch weir. For analysis purpose, average H and time were calculated. H (mm) 64.4 62.8 59.2 56.5 55.5 53.0 50.0 46.5 41.5 35.4 H (mm) 64.4 62.9 59.2 56.5 55.5 53.0 50.0 46.5 41.5 35.4 Mean of H (mm) 64.4 62.9 59.2 56.5 55.5 53.0 50.0 46.5 41.5 35.4 Volume (L) 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 Time (s) 12.05 12.66 14.31 15.64 17.58 18.55 20.65 25.50 31.31 48.04 Time (s) 12.35 12.62 14.27 15.41 17.74 18.35 20.02 26.11 30.03 49.13 Mean of Time (s) 12.2 12.6 14.3 15.5 17.7 18.5 20.3 25.8 30.7 48.6

Trial 1 Trial 2 Trial 3 Trial 4 Trial 5 Trial 6 Trial 7 Trial 8 Trial 9 Trial 10

Data for graph of flow rate Q as a function of H. Volume (m3) 0.0100 0.0100 0.0100 0.0100 0.0100 0.0100 0.0100 0.0100 0.0100 0.0100 Mean of Time (s) 12.2 12.6 14.3 15.5 17.7 18.5 20.3 25.8 30.7 48.6 Flow rate, Q (m3/s) 0.000820 0.000791 0.000700 0.000644 0.000566 0.000542 0.000492 0.000388 0.000326 0.000206

Trial 1 Trial 2 Trial 3 Trial 4 Trial 5 Trial 6 Trial 7 Trial 8 Trial 9 Trial 10

Mean of H (m) 0.064 0.063 0.059 0.057 0.056 0.053 0.050 0.047 0.042 0.035

Q (m3/s)
0.000900 0.000800 0.000700 0.000600 0.000500 0.000400 0.000300 0.000200 0.000100 0.030

Q against H

H (m)
0.035 0.040 0.045 0.050 0.055 0.060 0.065 0.070

However, it is difficult to determine the accuracy of the theoretical relationship without an independent way to determine the coefficient of discharge. Thus, in order to confirm the dependence of Q on H, take the logarithm of both sides of the equation for the rectangular notch weir, the equation becomes: ( )

Data for graph of Mean of H (m) 0.0644 0.0629 0.0592 0.0565 0.0555 0.0530 0.0500 0.0465 0.0415 0.0354

as a function of Volume (m3) 0.0100 0.0100 0.0100 0.0100 0.0100 0.0100 0.0100 0.0100 0.0100 0.0100

. Mean of Time (s) 12.2 12.6 14.3 15.5 17.7 18.5 20.3 25.8 30.7 48.6 Flow rate, Q (m3/s) 0.000820 0.000791 0.000700 0.000644 0.000566 0.000542 0.000492 0.000388 0.000326 0.000206

Trial 1 Trial 2 Trial 3 Trial 4 Trial 5 Trial 6 Trial 7 Trial 8 Trial 9 Trial 10

log H -1.19 -1.20 -1.23 -1.25 -1.26 -1.28 -1.30 -1.33 -1.38 -1.45

log Qd -3.09 -3.10 -3.16 -3.19 -3.25 -3.27 -3.31 -3.41 -3.49 -3.69

log (Qd) against log (H)

-1.50 -1.40 -1.30 -1.20 -1.10 -2.50 -1.00 -2.70 -2.90 -3.10 -3.30 -3.50 -3.70 -3.90

log (Qd)

log (H) Theoretically, if we plot the log (Qd) against log (H) graph, the slope of the curve should be . From the graph, the slope obtained is 2.279358 Absolute error = | | . The percentage of absolute error is relatively high. It is

mainly due to the random errors occurred during the experiment. These random errors included the different reaction time in taking the time for 10 L of water to flow, Using ideal flow rate equation,

Substitute the discharge rate, Q found into the above equation we obtain the following data: Mean of H (mm) 64.4 62.9 59.2 56.5 55.5 53.0 50.0 46.5 41.5 35.4 H (m) 0.0644 0.0629 0.0592 0.0565 0.0555 0.0530 0.0500 0.0465 0.0415 0.0354 H3/2 (m3/2) 0.0163 0.0158 0.0144 0.0134 0.0131 0.0122 0.0112 0.0100 0.0085 0.0067 (Discharge rate) Q (m3/s) 0.000820 0.000791 0.000700 0.000644 0.000566 0.000542 0.000492 0.000388 0.000326 0.000206

Trial 1 Trial 2 Trial 3 Trial 4 Trial 5 Trial 6 Trial 7 Trial 8 Trial 9 Trial 10

Q against H3/2
Q (m3/s)
0.000900 0.000800 0.000700 0.000600 0.000500 0.000400 0.000300 0.0200

0.0300

0.0400

0.0500

0.0600

0.0700

H3/2 (m3/2) From the graph, we found that the slope is 0.0640, which means: ; where

While directly substitute the different values of H found into the ideal flow rate equation we obtain the following data:

Mean of H (mm) 64.4 62.9 59.2 56.5 55.5 53.0 50.0 46.5 41.5 35.4

H (m) 0.0644 0.0629 0.0592 0.0565 0.0555 0.0530 0.0500 0.0465 0.0415 0.0354

H3/2 (m3/2) 0.0163 0.0158 0.0144 0.0134 0.0131 0.0122 0.0112 0.0100 0.0085 0.0067

Ideal Flow rate, Qi 0.00145 0.00140 0.00128 0.00119 0.00116 0.00108 0.00099 0.00089 0.00075 0.00059

Discharge rate, Q (m3/s) 0.000820 0.000791 0.000700 0.000644 0.000566 0.000542 0.000492 0.000388 0.000326 0.000206

Q/Qi 0.566 0.567 0.548 0.541 0.489 0.501 0.497 0.436 0.435 0.349

Where mean of Q/Qi = 0.493, which indicates which is deviates largely from the value found above. This could be due to the error occurred throughout the experiment. While consider V-notch weir. For analysis purpose, average H and time were calculated. Mean of H (mm) 39.0 37.3 35.6 34.4 33.0 31.0 30.0 28.7 27.0 25.9 Volume (L) 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 Time (s) 11.24 12.63 12.81 15.01 17.15 20.11 21.41 23.74 27.35 30.92 Time (s) 10.91 12.62 12.97 15.25 16.38 20.15 21.4 24.07 27.2 30.88 Mean of time (s) 11.1 12.6 12.9 15.1 16.8 20.1 21.4 23.9 27.3 30.9

Trial 1 Trial 2 Trial 3 Trial 4 Trial 5 Trial 6 Trial 7 Trial 8 Trial 9 Trial 10

H (mm) 39.0 37.3 35.5 34.4 33.0 31.0 30.0 28.7 27.0 25.9

H (mm) 39.0 37.3 35.6 34.4 33.0 31.0 30.0 28.7 27.0 25.9

Data for graph of flow rate Q as a function of H. Volume (m3) 0.00500 0.00500 0.00500 0.00500 0.00500 0.00500 0.00500 0.00500 0.00500 0.00500 Mean of time (s) 11.1 12.6 12.9 15.1 16.8 20.1 21.4 23.9 27.3 30.9 Flow rate, Q (m3/s) 0.000451 0.000396 0.000388 0.000330 0.000298 0.000248 0.000234 0.000209 0.000183 0.000162

Trial 1 Trial 2 Trial 3 Trial 4 Trial 5 Trial 6 Trial 7 Trial 8 Trial 9 Trial 10

Mean of H (m) 0.0390 0.0373 0.0356 0.0344 0.0330 0.0310 0.0300 0.0287 0.0270 0.0259

Q (m3/s)
0.000500 0.000450 0.000400 0.000350 0.000300 0.000250 0.000200 0.000150 0.000100 0.0200 0.0250

Q against H

0.0300

0.0350

0.0400

H (m) However, it is difficult to determine the accuracy of the theoretical relationship without an independent way to determine the coefficient of discharge. Thus, in order to confirm the dependence of Q on H, take the logarithm of both sides of the equation for the rectangular notch weir, the equation becomes: ( Data for graph of Mean of H (m) 0.0644 0.0629 0.0592 0.0565 0.0555 0.0530 0.0500 0.0465 0.0415 0.0354 as a function of Volume (m3) 0.0100 0.0100 0.0100 0.0100 0.0100 0.0100 0.0100 0.0100 0.0100 0.0100 . Mean of Time (s) 12.2 12.6 14.3 15.5 17.7 18.5 20.3 25.8 30.7 48.6 Flow rate, Q (m3/s) 0.000820 0.000791 0.000700 0.000644 0.000566 0.000542 0.000492 0.000388 0.000326 0.000206 )

Trial 1 Trial 2 Trial 3 Trial 4 Trial 5 Trial 6 Trial 7 Trial 8 Trial 9 Trial 10

log H -1.19 -1.20 -1.23 -1.25 -1.26 -1.28 -1.30 -1.33 -1.38 -1.45

log Qd -3.09 -3.10 -3.16 -3.19 -3.25 -3.27 -3.31 -3.41 -3.49 -3.69

log (Qd) against log (H)

-1.50 -1.40 -1.30 -1.20 -1.10 -2.50 -1.00 -2.70 -2.90 -3.10 -3.30 -3.50 -3.70 -3.90

log (Qd)

log (H) Theoretically, if we plot the log (Qd) against log (H) graph, the slope of the curve should be . From the graph, the slope obtained is 2.52652. Absolute error = | | , which is acceptable.

Substitute the discharge rate, Q found into the above equation we obtain the following data: Mean of H (mm) 39.0 37.3 35.6 34.4 33.0 31.0 30.0 28.7 27.0 25.9 Mean of H (m) 0.0390 0.0373 0.0356 0.0344 0.0330 0.0310 0.0300 0.0287 0.0270 0.0259
5/2 5/2

H (m ) 0.000300 0.000269 0.000238 0.000219 0.000198 0.000169 0.000156 0.000140 0.000120 0.000108

Ideal flow rate, Qi 0.000710 0.000635 0.000563 0.000518 0.000467 0.000400 0.000368 0.000330 0.000283 0.000255

Discharge rate, Q (m3/s) 0.000451 0.000396 0.000388 0.000330 0.000298 0.000248 0.000234 0.000209 0.000183 0.000162

Q/Qi 0.636 0.624 0.689 0.637 0.638 0.621 0.634 0.634 0.648 0.634

Q (m3/s)
0.000500 0.000450 0.000400 0.000350 0.000300 0.000250 0.000200 0.000050

Q against H5/2

0.000100

0.000150

0.000200

0.000250

0.000300

0.000350

H5/2 (m5/2) From the graph, we found that the slope 1.52, which means: , where

While directly substitute the different values of H found into the ideal flow rate equation we obtain the following data: Mean of H (m) 0.0390 0.0373 0.0356 0.0344 0.0330 0.0310 0.0300 0.0287 0.0270 0.0259 H5/2 (m5/2) 0.000300 0.000269 0.000238 0.000219 0.000198 0.000169 0.000156 0.000140 0.000120 0.000108 Discharge rate, Q (m3/s) 0.000710 0.000635 0.000563 0.000518 0.000467 0.000400 0.000368 0.000330 0.000283 0.000255

Trial 1 Trial 2 Trial 3 Trial 4 Trial 5 Trial 6 Trial 7 Trial 8 Trial 9 Trial 10

Where mean of Q/Qi = 0.640, which indicates found above.

, which is almost identical with result

Discussions From the graph of log (Qd) against log (H), we could observe that the coefficient of discharge should be 1.50 and 2.50 for rectangular-notch weir and V-notch weir respectively. However, value obtained through the experiment is 2.28 and 2.52 for rectangular-notch weir and V-notch weir respectively. Many errors were arisen for the set of experiment using rectangular-notch weir. This could be probably due to random errors occurred (eg: parallax error occurred when measuring the meniscus of the water level, different reaction time of each members when measuring time taken for 5L/10L of water to flow). Furthermore, assumptions made could also contribute to the errors. For example, fluid is assumed to be incompressible, which indicates its density remains unchanged throughout the experiment. Besides, fluid is assumed to be non-viscous, which indicates no resistance to the motion. There are other conditions which caused the error to arise. Difficult in reading the desired water level while water is rising is one of the situations. The surface tension of the water in the tube could also reduce the accuracy of recording the time taken for water to flow. Conclusions For rectangular-notch weir, its discharge coefficient is 72.2% (49.3% for 2nd method). While for the Vnotch weir, its corresponding discharge coefficient is 64.3% (64.0% for 2nd method). Since both values are less than 1, they are accepted solution.