Cells are the fundamental structural and functional units that the plant body or the animal body

is composed of. A plant cell may be defined as a unit or independent, tiny or microscopic mass of protoplasm enclosing in it a denser spherical or oval body, called the nucleus. It is bounded by a distinct wall called the cellwall. The protoplasm and nucleus are living, while the cell-wall is non-living, the latter having been formed by the protoplasm, primarily for its own protection. Cells vary widely in shape and size. In shape they may commonly be spherical, oval, polygonal, rectangular or considerably elongated. The average size of fully developed rounded or polygonal cells varies between 1/10 and 1/100 of a millimetre. The structures found in both plant and animal cells are generally similar, but there are structures exclusively found in plant cells; the following are the structures found in the cell. Nucleus: this is a specialised protoplasmic body, usually spherical or oval-that is embedded in the cytoplasm of the cell. The shape of the nucleus depends to some extent on the nature of the cell in which it occurs. In the young cell it occupies a median position and is almost always spherical or oval, but in the long cell it may become correspondingly elongated. Nuclei are universally present in all living cells. in the higher plants, only a single nucleus is present in each cell. In the latex tissue and in many algae and fungi, numerous nuclei are often seen in a single cell. In the lower organisms like bacteria and blue-green algae, however, true nuclei are absent, but there is corresponding nuclear material. Nuclei may vary widely in size from 1 micron to 500 micron, their usual size, however is 5-25 micron. A nucleus can never be newly formed, but multiplies in number by the division of the pre-existing one. Each nucleus is surrounded by a thin, transparent membrane known as; the nuclear membrane which separates the nucleus from the surrounding cytoplasm. Within the membrane, completely filling up the space there is a dense but clear mass of protoplasm known as ; the nuclear sap or nucleoplasm or karyolymph. Suspended in the nucleoplasm are numerous, fine, crooked threads, loosely connected here and there, forming a sort of network called; the nuclear reticulum or chromatin network. The nucleus is predominantly composed of nucleoproteins which are phosphoruscontaining nucleic acids and certain proteins. The basic function of the nucleus is that, it is the controlling centre of all the vital activities of the cell, particularly assimilation and respiration. If the nucleus is removed from a cell, the protoplasm ceases to function and soon dies.

Nuclear membrane: A limiting membrane which separates the nucleus from the cytoplasm is present in all animal cells except bacteria and mycoplasmas, and in all plant cells except blue-green algae. The nuclear membrane consists of two unit membranes, the triple layer of which are somewhat narrower than those in the cell plasma membrane. Each membrane is 40-60 armstrong thick and the clear space between the membranes is of the order of 200 armstrong, although its width may vary considerably. There are large pores over the whole surface of the nuclear membrane, formed by the fusion of the inner and outer units. The pore diameter is about 500 armstrong and they occupy about 10% of the total nuclear surface area of mammalian cells. The pore are concerned with the transport of materials across the membrane; for instance, RNA molecules probably enter the cytoplasm from the nucleus by means of these pores. Lysosome: the lysosome, also referred to the suicide bag; is basically a vacuole containing a high concentration of various enzymes which are used in digestive processes inside the cell. It is surrounded by a single outer unit membrane. Golgi apparatus: Golgi apparatus are stacks of flattened membranes. The Golgi apparatus temporarily stores protein which can then leave the cell via vesicles pinching off from the Golgi. Although more common in animal cells, Golgi apparatus are also found in several plant cells. Endoplasmic reticulum: this is an intricate network of tube-like structures distributed extensively throughout the cytoplasm. Some of the tubes of the reticulum touch the nuclear membrane and after extending through the cytoplasm, open on the cell membrane. The tubes increase the surface area of the cytoplasm to facilitate the metabolic activities of the cell. They also appear to be associated with enzyme formation, protein synthesis, storage and transport of metabolic products. In nuclear division, they contribute to the formation of the cell-plate and the new nuclear membrane around each daughter nucleus. Ribosomes: associated with the membrane of the endoplasmic reticulum, and also occurring free in the hyaloplasm, are extremely minute particles called ribosomes. Ribosomes occur in abundance and are composed of nucleoprotein, particularly RNA, and protein. Ribosomes are the main seats of protein synthesis. Centrosomes: these are minute bodies occurring close to the nuclei of animal cells and the cells of lower plants (many algae and fungi). They are not found in seed plants. The centrosome usually has two central granules called centrioles, which are deeply stainable. During nuclear division, the centrioles pass on to two opposite ends of the cell and organize the nuclear spindle. They are also associated with the formation of cilia in motile ciliate gametes.

Mitochondria: these are very small bodies, usually 0.2-2 microns by 3-5 microns, often present in very large numbers in the cytoplasm of both plant and animal cells. They occur in the form of rods or filaments, or as somewhat spherical or sausage-shaped bodies. They are mostly distributed throughout the cytoplasm, but in certain cells, they cluster round the nuclear membrane or beneath the plasma membrane. Mitochondria are, however, absent in bacteria and blue-green algae. The mitochondria provides energy for the vital activities of living cells, being closely associated with respiration and photosynthesis. They contain most of the oxidative enzymes of the respiratory cycle, particularly of the Krebs cycle. Several oxidative enzymes, concerned with the breakdown of glucose and other food materials during respiration are also located in them. ATP, an energy rich phosphate compound commonly used to phosphorylate glucose to active glucose-phosphate, is formed in the mitochondria. Structures characteristic of plant cells: The vacuole: the vacuole is the most striking structure characteristic of plant cell, but lacking in animal cells. The vacuole has a single layer membrane, the tonoplast, which may be formed by expansion of the cisternae of the endoplasmic reticulum. It contains solutions of salts, sugars, and other substances. In young plants cells there is no large central vacuole, but numerous small vacuoles are present which may not be visible under the light microscope. As the cell grows, these vacuoles enlarge and coalesce until, in the mature cell, there is frequently only on vacuole which may occupy 90% of the cell volume. The large central vacuole functions by exerting a force on the cytoplasm, pushing it to the outer edge of the cell where it forms a thin layer in which exchange of gases and nutrients readily occurs. The sugars, salts, and other substances which are stored in the vacuole are often present in large concentrations, and the high osmotic pressure developed helps to preserve the turgidity of the cell by inducing the movement of water into it. The plastids: also characteristic of the plant cells. includes the chloroplast, leucoplast, chromoplasts. The most widely studied of these is the chloroplast which is the site of photosynthesis and which contains the green pigment chlorophyll. The chloroplast, like all plastids is bonded by a double unit membrane and possesses a complex internal lamellar structure. The second main category of plastid is the leucoplast, which as its name implies (Greek, leukos, white) is colourless. It stores starch (when the leucoplast is known as an amyloplast) and lipids. Chromoplast, the third main group, are coloured and contain the second class of pigments which are important in photosynthesis, the carotenoids.

Finally, there are smaller, spherical, structures, assume to be young or immature plastids, which are known as proplastids. These are thought to be the common origin of all plastids.

Fig. 1. Diagram of a plant cell viewed under the electron microscope.

Fig 2. Diagram of a animal cell viewed under the electron microscope.