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LOGICAKrD
LANGUAGE
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PfWfI!$S~)1t5 J. L
~01J(;I,AS r.ASKING,,'
(~. ,:.:l-1')OJ!T~.(!.M., GILIIEnf,l\vl/:.
J. J. C. SMIII~l'
UII. F., WAISM.ANN and DIC Ii. L. WILL,

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O. j:. t'I!AU5i II. M. MACIVJ:Jt. I;. ,I. \1;'ARNOCK. J. 6. URMSON

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IUJfTlm Wrr~( AN INTRODUCTION':':BY

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ANTONy"PtE\X:

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ty,p~~~jcl!ll~}r1li f~rrucd .:0111. tJ~~it: jntctr~)gi\d\~c
.

'?;,1.i

w?~ds.
,~ut ~rj'
,~~~"~.~9J1 J.sJ~tY.cnfo.r .sU.PPDsulgthat. the: Gn:di 5tock of
Intcrrqgll,.
,:;
,tlVt; .~,:<>rds.~ either ;t!i.~'CouOPl.i&;:lI.
;is
'p~5jblc
or as rjch
ns m.igJn
h~ dc.~r.r.cd.. 1-~()wc:\~.r hIs dnc, such :1.5Jt
~~. W:\S..l1ot
a co.tUplcrdy
!~
.

~illy.6J_e. ):Qraft.i:t~U
writ ~opbJstic;ztcd1y.

'prQ,P0sidonal fuuction' is 'ouly i()ucstiont' ;

TIlc proJ7ositioll:a1 fimClton 'x to;

SI1Ub-DoseJ'

diO~n, o,oly iti'prn~(:a.l :lSroci.3tiolu Croln 'Who is si1ub-uoscdf::

ulld ..SOCt'3tc:.ss
~' c:dIibits 11c:.>
JU~rc or Jess Ll13JI'Where is
Socr:lrcn~ or 'Wlut-Jjl,;,c (qui1Jj~) is SOCldl\".5I'or 'How bigh
Socrn~t'sl' acc.ol'tJil1g to lhcgr.J,t'c ~c::Ic;ctcdfor
IJ'. (Cf. Lewis 3nd
LaJ1g~ord: ,SrllJb"~ir I-b,~I'f,
ril" 3j2..,4: :md Cartup ou '\V. . ,
qUCstwlIs 1f1Lo,l1,ml ..C;)'11t17.'I:
<ifLI1IW'a~l',p. 296,)
In onl~1 lQ St:1tCnaorcprCci~dr
wJlt;fcAriHode Wa.s.011 the
righ~.tr.t.ckaij~ wb.ere ,his
Cn.tcr}>ri~r:,is un$lJcccss~uJ. ::tl1d:tho
hC'Q~5:CrshiiU ri,~d lhornl"te~ OIl ill thC' course uf this l':lpc.r, I
,,'.aut JII~t~co Jntr.odtle-c Sautc tcchniclll jdio/[l~. It is patcm cl13[
in :I..~~i
s.~. SCtl~CtlCC5'(:'OU~1.i~p:lrts;
filr hvu 'SCl1tCJII:C.~
t.11i

be ,t><i~alI.r. ~iJ~Jar.nndI'3rti1U}~dj$.!iulil:u:,

calldiss1.nU1u':1
:uiy l':!rdil.1
j::~p.~](>I1:wluch c:.UI~ntcr't11t9 SCiltC;iict'soLct.u,
thtr\yis~

~~I~i',~r~H'~~gJt,.wo~ds
wiU be' s~itc:J]d,"'&cj;q!S,
but.so Wi!,(pht.l$cl,\fat\i9+'g'r:cc
of c:oJUplt'XilYas wdl :uentir.t,
.d,3us~, Thl1s in lhe. ~CI)[6J\.'C'I :1m th(' nun who wrotc this
.
.
p:lpCf., ' I ' ,. ' t J1~' lUau
\\: I1O.f W )JO wm c t 11~J'aJ>r[,
;. Wrote . u!;
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t J.

papC.e ;lnJ all si.~It<:Ilcc-t~tQrs,

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c;aJJ UICIl1 ;'.faCtoc5' !3t1u.'r Ut;lll 'ptlrt.~', since 'p:tft,-;'
.'

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'\\'ou,M
suggC'$~,what 15~f:tlsc.. tll~t the clcmcllts $()
abstracted call eXISt.
~muidc .~1}' slll:1, l'OlllbirUt~()J~
.~~.~Ol1stitutc ~tcuce~
3UJ, wit:!!.
J~.wc)~, .that ~lcy(:nH
occuruldllfercllt1y
anywhere 1tI ~Itr sucli .
("i)Juh.u.tatioJl, !.l"_ lhar tbei :Ii:cbQth
iiHlcpCt~(lelJi ;1UJ freely
sh.u1Hc3blc t-,"IIIJUClS, The :'woi.d 't:lc:tor' j~
to suggt'1t.o{"
\\.'lt31"i~ tl'lll:. Ih~t lIll'Y C:III only oC<:\1/'n~ fau i.ntt'Jldcd
(Irs in ('OInplcxcs
('('ILlia sorts, :lIui CJII onh'.l1crur
ill tI'l'lII iu c('rt.tin dl'lcrmjmt':

w:ws,

'. .t\k>\'V dllJlIgI~~cUt~UC.c-JjICit,l\r~ r:mnot

c()U1~i.1J:-"It.i\?I1S~:~ht'Y
.('.an bC:3b.~~ctcJ

frum

bl' l:Xtr:\CWtl. ti'om

:Ill

~n)' \1)ccj(!C4.combio~-

rjf)u" ~fw~:
t*~ -:~,~ ~t~A~cJia~d;~,I!.bs~tutc fot.~~y::r.r.~S1l'!cutoC

j~',4'4~~~i!~i'l&~~?f~ilic::pl~~%~~~:Afld'sp~~;w:bat is Junk:~ S~J1~'~:

':

f:lCto1:::'~~';n .!tgu;11 (u.ujtCly.;.~p;

and'''90~
dotted l1nq)?
to .
~ho\Vthi1t aud ljow the ~Hch~factQr
requiresthecl.)mplc:tjoJl~'
.But

CAT EGO lUES

t.y
.
thctl()~ti:ll liuc, lhough i~. te-ql1jrt'S SOl11CcOl1\pk-,l1tcnt
:~':r other.
\vol1Jd to1crn.w':asils ct1jupl?rnl~~~
Arly' (1~\t~raIl1l1der1J~ltemngc
of .Gictort, TI\li.~ '.S(Ii:r:1I'C$1$, . .
. or l:Ull. the m:\1\ wlm s~ .:md
:10', ()( 'Such 411c1 .such IUtp1icilhat
tOii)Otr(1\\'
Sa~f(b;' , ~n:
nonC:UtcnCt'S bUt s(:nlcllcc:"f.r:ttnc~ oul)'. th~ gars 111wind, rCl.)lnrc
to be c(llnplct't!tI hy furthl'r SC1\tl.'1ICe-f.)(.~tim,The required. Clf1;\lplcmalt$ ,...'Ou1d, or (:UUr5I=",h~v4.~to I~ nf diff.'..:rcnt !:OI't5 II~ ,the
three 4.lilfi:rcnt.. (nines,
'.,' ugly" would (:ompk~e (IIJ{~, .,;_ .
v,i,itcd Edinburgh
)'cHcrd.\y' wuuld comple[c Ihe $I:wud. ;tlul
'[<,day's being 'i'\lc~day , . .' would complele the lhird. :md none
wou1d cOlnl'/ct~ citbt'r o,f thl! <?tl1cn,
DQ;hl1ough 'hot :lIIY factor IS fit to be the complcJ1}<.Ilt, ()~. ;11I)
. .
,
gap. tl\C~rc i~ :lit iudC'rmin.. rnnge t)f p~~r;~blf.' r.'tcton
the !;:I~n~
pattt:ru \\'hid.1 \\'u1l1t1 nllllplf."tt nnygn'cll
g.ll', Sn ~):
"'I; :\b~lr:1Ct.,1
(actor from dw Otl.l\T 1:":1\11'ur f:lcl\m in :lIlY n'!ln~'t;.: ~(.'.I~t~IICC
hy p~lltiug dolt.td liJlt'~ I)f" 'b""p-~igiu' (Iikc '~n :md Sf.,) or x t11
',' or 'J' ') in tbe pbrc or pl:ltl'~ of the otlu:r f.1CtN iH f.'Ct.t)T;" A
.
ga]>-s.igld.'i nor-il~df:\
word, or .:1plir:ts(~. or :toc\;llIH', ON I:; It{!1~
Jj:.tmc or description of cm~i J.l is thCt,l;l.UW qr Hle!.:x.(if :t plu:l! hlr
o~~ Of for %U1ynfn mllgc or;1J)l"rOI't':\~'S<""11~:lIc~:-h\cCCJrs,
,. . .
No'\v scntcncC'$ .md ~11tcnc(:.;.ra~tm's ,;trC' El1gh~h t)f GUIII;III,
J'eJldJJcdor
whispt'tT.J 01' sh,out~d. 'shmgy, or pCd?rHi~: ?ud, so .0\1.
\vht
Ingic i,~conCl:rntd with IS somctl11ng w}m-h b mdJtfl"C!1l
to tI'l'SC djfi;:rcnc.:cs-. n:ulldy (it i~ convl":tJ.iul\[ 1!llIl1gh o[ccn 1I11~Ie-;.diug to ~a~ prupositions
:tJ.l,J.the part59T f;\ct~~,:~of pmpo5l,:
uotn. \Vhi:Jllwo ~('mt:JH:cs 1)[ ddlcn.'lIt J:llJglla~rc!', Idl\)m~. a\ltIH~I.
.
01' dat~ sa}" tht' ~:tIl1Ctiling, wl~at the;., ~:ay (~::tllbo: c~'>JI<ld~~(':ilJ~1
abstT:lction (1'0/11 tin' ~t:\'t~r.1JS"VlI\t~~of Jr, wlllt:h ,1.,,'5 11011(;'~lIlll
H3 CO~uJ'pl):;~ th:\t it slalld~. to ,ilcm ii, ;1n.1\"!) sl:1I1,dstt? the !'C\'('r.,d
r,i~npost$
which poim tu it. An(I, .iust :JS.~\'~.dJsplI!;tn~h
,.
rr<.'p"~!"
(i~'m li'l\n1 tlac SC'I1IClIl'{"whi,.1t j'JI:'I'('lInJ: thGII1:.~~;?.. \'0'1: IUtI~1 (:::..

l.iJ.I!;~'hh.. .pro l~osjti.ollri1l:~L,i:s'. ~.

~r:;w~~I~:::;
~:.i~~ . t!~~:.~.!~!qt.:~t.!q
. t.'xprt:.'Ss them, Rut :\g:Iill we l11u!:r IHlt :mppost.' Ibl ,.lm
l~t: .\I,~
th:it.'dic wurld Ct)til:lill5: co\\":\ mId C"drtbcIU:1kc$ill/.I PWpOSIUO'.&ctofS. 3hr. JI1I)re lh:lJ1 \ c ;1Tcel~tit1(,.i.l,bv 'rhe rac~ th.1t wr:
.1~,1.~
di~il~r1~bh lf~~ !;wl) f.li:t\$ ()f:I c:o,Ut to, ,u}.~r. due \\
h~
~~I:t".;,
dUlt ',Ii\ my Jl~ilJ I JW\'Cthree thmS!< \11 jl~, ImJ\d. tlIt COII!,. .'j

.Irs twu

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: j~r;xt,'...eIJJivcseen dlilt the gri!; in:t gh'~u StUtcm:(:-{j',lm~':;1;,

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J:.,SS,t\YS ON

l()(;JC

71

,\1'11) L,a.NG\.I/\c;li

bc:'~om~,lcCCtI hy Sl!tlle In!' tt~)t. b)' II!'}' nltcrn:J.~i~c cotl1plcl11cl1ts.:,

~~u; Uu:u(,:'~,etwosorts o( CUlt here; So aud S(P~ m b,.J' gr:un.n.12.-:..'
(~
~y'~~u:l~~~fdrco.tnpleni(!Uts.t;{).th~'.m':p
In:cU,cutcd by 'so lWei.
~tK~\I,~l~

.~.~?n~~.~.~

()~ ,!U~$t~~~tJ~131.~~~~~:;~\#l,:.1tS

;..~CSstii'ti

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R~SI).~~tu:~.#y.~~t
bed, bt,~k.\:n~,.~!I~J'~i3~1l)I:lf'
.~~t:";.
. .'
tJ~c'~kncc
is n.bsurd.. '4n~c<J.uct.ltly'~~c PO'~~.~.C='~6mi)tcmcots
.
be.
not
0
ccrtmu
s.r~mlU:1l1C:llt),p.~,.
Lhey
~nll$~'
jib"
n.~,~,
~1~}'.~(
L~l1~$ proJ'p$IUou,;.&c.tor~ ofcertilln
(ogic~l ~vi;~"S. T.h~ sever:!l
'
f:1~o~ in 3 .rton-;ab~ltrd setltc.ucc hr~t);ljkall)t ~u.ttcd to. c~dl.oili~'r;
lhn,re an ~n ~b$urd !lc:ntc:u(:c,or ~otnc nCthcriJ. :ll~t'typ!t~U)' ttl1$ui.r.1bl~ !~')cadt other. '1'1>14,}'th:tt;\ gi\,cu pror()r.iti~,)JI~f1\ctUr is of II
C~~II C\~goryor
typ.c.is to 53}' 'U1:tt .it~ CXl)rC ~ion .tuuM COI11.
{~ete. cC'.tt.uu F.Clttc1)c~fr...mcs '\v1thhut tibsurditv.',
'.
. .
Ittlic iutL'l'pl'etatiol1. [hat 1 .i1:i~c givC:l1 ,,(Aristotle's
d~'ctd1\c
.,r~fCgarii:5~
C01TCCt,WC
s:itclilitJn
6urdll1pL')rtitl1t
rcspc.:r .
~
.O~I
t
he.
rlg}~
.tra~~
For
.ltl~~~Og:\t~vc5c;:ntClttcs.\'\'!ICU.
cnnI~
111:lbS~rn(.llou
1i'!.tJl1tJjctr'1~r:u::.ttt.11
rol~
as
!>r:tltiull5
or
'1~4.
,~OJnI112}Jdf.Are,s~n~tlc&-ft:l.i1)l~s. null IJlciutc.rr.ognti i:c \Vofc1~ in
\'"HClit-,s of.s~ms of
d~r:.~. :lrc gnl>:;tgm. .Attd. b>:;distj]jguishing
,

'IUfl.~?J1.~i _ATJ~todc IS' U3ll1g agcnerill

:ritcthod for \:x.hibiti.ug
\.~t;1Ct1C5o[ typt' or the fil~tt'Jtf,:\ hidl. would' llc, ;:amwcril to tho:\('

we$tions or ~m~I(:J1tct..t~ to tb;~s~ ?~L)-!oiW'S~.'

",

On the other band Ills proccd~lI'I:: I.~<!dec.-bve, tntludbllowmg

,"l1yS. He: ?nly. ucn:.mpts todass.af)' the t)'l'cs of.;\ smt\llslllH:.1~$.~
.
.~f~ropo:"t1on..f;t(.tI1r$.1~:1,ntdy the (;Onsr:itI1CU~:lUtI.c011lponcJ.1tS of
. .tU.1plt-.:smguJar PJ'C>Pl}SHliHtS.I.et us (<\11these by thdr t.ro..Jitioi1al
t}~pic:1l1y~nJ.biguoll~) title' or\crms~.
AJJ t~riJ1s:\rc {~c:t(mhl1t

(~4

;.~~~r~dol'S ~'nC11' tC:tiiu. Hc!,roiltri

Ill} ~t: OJ.\V]lcn ;i sehtL11C~.
i':~i:lr dOL'S.:1hd \vhcil it.11~s t1ot~t:it1d f9r :ucrm;:ind
fieOJis to
.
~~~that
A gf~ntln:\tir:1lly .SUlIf)Ic:::wotd :41.,\:15 st:lHd~' fOf a
..\)~CH~cur or componcnt
of It mup1e: pWPQmtOIl.
lIe rclte.~,
~p.1>3r~nclr, ~I,)ldy upon t,mT1tll0Jl s~m~. ~m~ COI1Utlou. p';\i'l.'it1.cc
'Oi":~',dclKC u}at ;J Sh1.~tl Ciccor is ~tI'itcd io,rt.l1,~gi.Vl"J1'.gl\p~ .>llut
.\'orsc l]mll tIus. he- does !iN rl'C:Dgni1.e't1Utt the' tyl'~or~il.11.)rs
.ontrol ~lId :uc ,tOlll.l'olh:cl ~y tUl' lS'giq1\ Limn 9f.thc pr~pO$iiions
I1to.:wIDc:h dlC.~'C:tncnt~h cX~eptiii:tljC.5(;IUtilry~MC(~rlrn(1:i~.ular..
.1I.hsbnccs wJ~*(h, l1c tcc."dglU;!t,s;(jMlimt.occilt?yjth~
b~t:4s~of
(~~~di
';~~

~t:ltiotL~. Ul3.gnit.. dcti'; positions,

bc~pl.~

prQpOsitioJls.

.'

ki~(h, ctc., iu ,~;I.Ipt he; .

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H~, with the logkbris of l:1tcragc$, scentS to h:tVc.thought

dut while t<:rm1:lrc coupled in .propoj;ir.ion!>:lud whil~ ~htrc: arc
vn~iou!: t.ypcs 9.[ tcrtns,. yet there is only ,on~ sort of c~~p1iug,
for :~lI:\~~fY $:Lntc t~rm,\Vhich OCC\.l(SJI~ .onc 1,rop0S:t.t10n3.5
15'lhj~tC:1~~CClit'

in,.:il\t1t.hcr

3S 'pi:cdi:,tC',.

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otht!r
A$';1ny letter of thc'alphabet n~y be JU)Ct;'po~cdw,cb R~Y
IcttCf'..wii:1lOl2tmodifyiilg thc'.dcsigt}~ of t.ho~c Ic[tcrs, 50tt ~eclns
to hOl.vCbeen thollght that ther.e is no interaction bC1W~<:!1
the
(orm 'o.f:1.proposition :md ~hctJPcs' Of the f.'1ttl)rs comrosiJ~g it.
Sono connection W3Sest:thh~hcd between the fotln:!1 propertlcs. of
pro)'osi.tiotls which !'cllckr illr"'[,Cl\l:~~cmuOll)'mg 111t~ri)
l'os~ih)c
or. hnJ'os~ihle; nnd the t()I'1l};11
rropcr.lic:I' or tn;CS of t.h<,terms
qr. CI.\1ic\~
f.'\c.tol'1dn them. The. ~}'Uogi!ltic ruh:s which Aris.t()t)~.
tliSc;o\;~[cd turn 1)11tJje COIlCt.-pts.
c.xP(css~<lhy sud! f()tJtH.VOrds...
as ;ill,solllr.;

l"iJ, 1/&:11,
(1/111 and
impliri.

but. his tt'C.itln<:.i\t of t1tClH

neh.h~r infectS ito\' is infected by his das~iIi.~nti('11of types "f

tl'.rJ1\~,
It i.s :u though

:t gra.mm.Hi:!.\) '\\'('I~in

his lirst dl;tpll:r

t(~ gi\:r

. ddillitious of tlte t y.pC:S o( l';u IS of 'r,~('dl. such :\s I\OUI1~,,prepositions, \'crbs, cor~illJlcti(1m,elc.. :11'..1 ill :1 bt:r t:h:aptcr to glve,:1
quitt. independent di~(:hssi(lll to tJH~ rulc~ of 5}'J1to\X.wht'Tt HI
trilth. j\lst these rules lJ1ust nlrl""dy be latcnt in till' nottous of
noun,"~rb, conjitnclkm. etc, It is to trcat' 3.Sti:~ly slHlltle:tblc
couutct'sr.1.~t(,)rs'the detcImina.te ro1l'.S()fwhich in tilt' comhinllt.ion
i1tto~vhicb they 011 cUter :nc just whM c(,o.o;titutctheir typet..
()(:t Jir(/po~hi(}lI.:1Ud.to .
'.i'okmw.; aU nhout the logical form
know:111 noouf ~'(' logical typcs ()fit, Cl(t'Jnar~ to know une:.Xl.ml
the salJlc thing. (I ~ll'q)ngizC'.not \'cry hUlubly. G')rtcr~nir.Il'>I()~y
ViJtich, hcr~ .:snJche\\'hcn.' in thi~ p:'.~r J su1ntitUtc f.n [h~:
tam.innlngT of 'l'ropl)~itinn:11 flTnctil)\J~', '\';\riabl,cs: "'a.l~lc~;'lull
the t,C\t. ) tlo $0 f,'r rhe sirupl.: rt":ISI.'1\that. elm rCUlIIII'.'!f)~Y
ub\,j,)m
h~ It;d to UI'''"YCOUfilSi(\Il~,E\pcc:i:tlly it f.\iIccl to lIl"kc
wh~thcd.n talking uf rlllll~ti{m)\1v:\ril1blc$j values, ct~... wcwt:n'
l:Jlkillg of ccrt:lit; SNt!l of m;f~fCS!;kmsor t:\lking I/I;rl, ccrr.ain
t:'(pl'l~~inlts .c{ CI.'I'l"~u,~()[ts of tl~l1gS." SI,\<\lllll.',\c , s~y th;t.
Socr;,tc, or S.,cr:1CCSlS:t valuC' uf: th~ \'drJltbJc 1JI x 1.5snl1tl- .
l1osecl', The tCr111.ino]ogywhicb .Ili~e is. JIlCant II.! be ~\'~rt.lr'
SCI1\:1t1UC;11$ iecm~, t,m. :lrc tnc;'int to be rl'~lsolI:\hlc .:dfc~l'~mi:it~\r}' .)

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t)j'l

l.OtO/C

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LANGV.:HUi

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K;mt s dr.)ndil~ ()( CiltrgQrics
JC..\NT'S

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]Ul)('JMEN1'-/:USCM.SI\r-;n

C:\Tr:(;OIlU$
.
"tlttl:\helimn
(roUI ("b.\t of Amt/)t~c. ;and whnt
Jj~t1 Iplitt:
;IS :I diifhcw: quart:<.'t'
Cl1tcgori~':$~U'C(\liitc
otl!cr. dUlI.WJ13t .AttS~~tJe f:>lIts iuta ltis iudex,.
.j{:IJI,t
avcrs d\:1t his pWJIQSC ls'thc Sc"\/lIC;t.~tllM of Aristotle- butquaintly
ii\'this .
he, ,i\:'i3v~In~ :t \~ry
..bro:td und v.tguc:,s(.'t'/sc.
,:
ttn~t\~cly KIII~t,~Or.rtl":. ~or.tbn~ ~ut 0(1115four 111bt~~J1.,UJ.i~'r_'
.
the: s:u~ J.ab<:h lIS
11~:1ds:uf.~~~on~5'
ArtstutlchiJ-d

,:,.~;:.:
~~"h:~~~'~~q~)tit\'~
.

,"(QIUUt);,<:a';d.

d .fi

tl'

fhU

'R~i~~~:,~ ~i'cifu

d/tfc~:1t
~~ttoftf,~,!p
.fonhdwo
'.'
,K:un b~1U~ by gl\',Ulg it c.1tJ1logu(:'phiJQ~()rh~;
ofjudglllcnt-for'ill3,
'()gIIC, tJJ:J.tis tOS-Jr. pf~h<! :Icvt'ral

"; .'::,-

'~~i~i~1;
. ,

'.,

.:

.. C.1r:t-

th~;sourcc from ,,!Juch lie, ~omcw1!:1rIIJY$t~ri.DlI~I):,

d~vc ~r &:dIlL":thcln.
. l'ropo~'$. tl1

;~pp'rq:cb ~VQS.in prindf,11.'1Inilch lnor~ eu-

IJgh~c;!!cd tbJl A.D!i()d~,.s ]Ind

ht'eu. Unforl1m:trely bis executioll
W~5h"p~r~'r}' uiliguidcd. Hi~ sub-variet}' (\f'irillll.hi.~' j udgrucHt:s, is
:l.lr~ud;. ih:rc:
arc~'n~~ sor.ts Qf\mi.\'I,'rsrlr
btt~,tbc ~ori:
WJU~11h~w:tS.t.'utl~dtr1I1g~h~)~lld ~(}J.rtcum,bjUUglJ1Ctlt.
tl1(.~1\c'ading ufh}.p?lh<;,tlc~1J.u~,igm"J1ts; rhe dt\.'1~lotl tII[O a~st,rtt1..ic,
p/'C)hJl~ill:)tk and
:Jp,O?C:II:~('r~ W~O!IJ~-JI~'(](JC~.11)c~\~() la5t beinH SP.tX'i:il~:as~~
t.b~uc.l.$. tilt' JJ'V!SIOIIIJ)C'()~'ltq~C3J,
t~fJ'Yl:oIJn>Qrllcttr.:lI:tUd clr~lwl~t1ve :.
C~oill~:1 ~l's~~h'i~.if>JIl!tUI
~ h:lt he: !):td~) ~HlI!J \y:u d,e Cpi~t:.U~oncSJ:U]ug?,ujS~)Oil.;for (d)
:'"
dIGt~U(:tIOJI~~'~w~:~p$l.r.upl~:.uJ
pound P10lX)~,ur)ma!ld
COlrl~,
;~
(lJ) llC:Oltllttcd tll;)!11 tIllS J:tttt"rcl;)~~COJ;iJun(;.:..\';[>

,A:

J~

'

ju wl1kh
"''')'$
011l:i'tol>Osidou'
1UlI\'rt'SCluhtc or dllIer..1I:<ntl
anotlr('C' Wit ill tOJ'ic ~Utill 1('rl11. He
1I~~(~.Jtoat~~I1~I~t fl.l dc, fine ~1(" notiolJ. o~. fOrtH.
115,c:tt3.IOS1JC;U.\'e b}"~c.:cbrH1g.i.yb( IS f;lls~:.that~~It.l"VCJ~tojustiFy
dClwed from
.
UIC fxpdillg~;of&,aJjti6nnl
Ingk, "illicit llt: :JSSU/11('$to. be a COIll,~!~t~cI.~?,~)' af
~~fd
~~iJl, (1) ~U' prol'o~itk'\J1S :uc <IClt.'t.u.ut,c.d,.n: f,~~'pc:t:t
.(jf Qu;uiJJtr.
UL'lt'IS 111,respect of t.bet~~tCmloll
~f th~1.r ~u1vt.-.::.t.~.
allJStf J)lust .he dthcr linj vcrsiiJj .
.5UI,;u,l:lr.
J..~.()t ijl~:~I/', 'forn~' or .U?s: l~:nl1; (2) 3,11p:)rlD::ul.ar cir
,Irt' CttJicr .lflirxJl;)trH'.
iH'Ol)O~itio~u
11r-g'atlvc (.)f mluJJ(t', wludr urc dlc lhrec
'ql.I:t~tic:i' of t>ropC)~jti()t1S;(3) ;ill J)('oposiliom are.of onc ,if die
d~e,':l{cl:i1iQ!l~.P:1ttcL't!$, ~s is 1", 'jf), d)cu q', JIJd
~,tl aU pro~~)~ut(Jl1s:u:-c
'1'. or tJ'; :tud
Of/'flC (~f r~lt~tl,,:cc ";}ri~~lir:s
J.c;o[,thc
of'Mud.aJ.irf.
~ fo~n. tIlt' nmy bl~ fimil (If
tIle 'n)u~t bc' form.
TJI~~ Jlldgll1t'Jlt~umm :iIC IIIJt Y(.'t.Rallt's C::ltl'gonr-$,
Lut il.l'v ;trL~

. ltaut'sHut,.of

\
"

,~
.

,,,,,

,"-

",.t.,

~.::i~

E!>5AYS

ON

t,OGIC

ANt)

I.:\NOUII(;F.

exhihit

I 'Jl.lf sces dIal .in g~~c,raI pr~po~itions

arc different
UH)dify
h\$ thcory ~Om
of "';
~Uo,yc(1 to. d\crc
)~ co~p1inB'
but this is n9t
.~,
~i1cl :J
C nu.) Kant secs that thert, b ,.a.,g.\ll\:\y.of sorts' o(~oupli1\g
uCr.,ctou'

these Jctcrmin,c pro ClfC~ct,c:rJ11i~t~d,

by t,h~sorts

mending tis tb.fC3d

call be. coupted.: Ans.t<1t\e, ~>-1S

~1. a.1ph!1bcuc lh.ccty;of (.1l"ton .~',
:I
~implc
'.iuX'Ppo~i\;j6n'
dll...'Oryof
their combiilht1oi\si l{ant's ':.
'nd
:\ ~out the comMn:ltions
of'(ri.CtoJ'$, and
's)'ntnCc
k:U:
dlC011'
$f
sequcnt!Y:1,,synbcUa'
theory
Aho,ut
tlll.~
I)'rc:s
Oflhos~J:'\Ctot$ '!
:,
_ ",r 's(.' 1 interpret his cryptic '\~tter:mcd nh6uc 'functicHlOSof
Ius foousof
-10\vc\.cr, K.3nt.'~~t1g ;tiricsftrenot idc:miC:l'with
';'\lily,'the \irojc~.fi~n:\ of
j gmet1!., 'X'bey. ue.iJi,so~'U:ri~3CUre
:uicl eventS.
tl\~.
{i~tb.orn,3tui.:\llMng'
~,loglcul fC?rt1uu~n
tSt.'\blish;'lblc by. obsen:ation l'r
NBtutal rocts, f~ct$ d,~~~isd~t'arc
U n\t:I1II~ry of or in~uc..tion froil1 or c:na:11 inri:~1tc rrmu
.J ;C'(\'o1tiom.:\11embody ccrt:iin l~rhidl'\c~ vi:"SLI\1(tui'C, ,,,-hicll
50mcho\Vacri~ froUI tIle it~l~ it'! the {!\'hlcof
j\l(lgli\~I,c...f()ml.'t.
:mtl i~R'J)~i\'~'ol:\rnir1tUtc c~nsis.~}'ofthings p'os s~<.il.g dctCl1Sh 'C'
"

'

'

'

\l111\y\

hUt

;;

'

l1\c tn)'stcriQu!a

Met\psydl()logy,

'';'CS to prove hl)th thtt

t\Hlt

N:I.tlJt~ must b~~S(I constitUted

Tcjl'1C
.
GIINnR,\U.7.ATIO~~OP "HE
nonscmil.:.tl c.'>r:\bsmJ,
l~OI\Whe1\ 3 ~cntc~\c:t"i~ (nut tru.: or (J.be bllt)
:ma its. grammatic.'\
iLor,
"<Kilhul.lry
is
C0I1\'cntiot1:.L1
ahhtn,gh
bcc;\l1sC at lea~l (-,Ill'
, r:::iay th:1.t it. is :tlmtr<l
be cot1p~cd
SlI'ucli(?~l is rcgubr,
l,)(
the righ,ttyl'C .to
ip1()t
cxrtc.s~ion
i11it
in.grCt\ich\.
, hlt th~ <,ther Ul~rcdlcnt C'xl?n,:sSlon,
(;O.llUl1lt ~~pl.'c)r tub': ooupl!:<.\ in th:)t "fn,,!
Sucb sCutt'.nc:ts,wc. may' say ~ (.,( ~1)gU:I~1\~,

:\tl(I
,

c ('::111
knuw thJ\ it must be 50 c;omtit\1te,l. rll'C<.\notc)l,pq~itl()u
be r 11\rclCY:1T1t
W(lu\u be all
).:JcreJ hcrt.. What \ <1itiJ.1~c
hi!;;\<)gical
~l'OrdSt?S to find he tween.
or the difii:r~hccs .il1.:'t.~~Il
It Il'H>ksIt!!though he
,C':1tegot.\d,:,on'1alut;\l:t).pC!;~,
n~ ~d ht$
onfuscdly hdicvc,11t!tat tI,icrc c:xi~t't\V(1:1urt5of facts
orprhpnsif;t~tso.r.}~rhp()l~l),ns,.l(1gid;\I\S't.1Ct~t)t:t1~po*ih~':GJuhdcnthts'
,

tt3t\tl~.3nJ

tlut \lte fot~~'

.f U1('forll\a.

(\hhc,1:i1tcr

I\rr. 1;lcp-di.i\~li.i:'n of lh<:isc

((If inT:\Ct the

]Jut th.i5'\\'o,iM ucHlIl :ttiSlinl view.

.l\gi~i:I11~. .I(\~m~ i1n~',.simij'v:

pt:OpO~Itl(\Jt5 W~.h~l:l1l,
,,)[ ~'ICl\ll"ts.

hlSt\..\r1nl~SI .

i
'

b''ll)<l~~
,'cry' ~~ly dlr ~clr .I/c;tn.mc,:I:C~
dl(wi.ogJ:ut~. So
,
tnad1cm~tl('U\tUo.c;ar
..,.; dlc allegeu clis-- i
~Flo~~,
tinGtion:is.:.t t.bink..'Ii.hugi.Won~.'!:"';"
,w:,t~e tedU\~cI11prubk!n how to
'\t2S;t, c~ntrib\1tcC, uod~l~
,

~Ir c"pl:(.'$)\t)n~

hi i~.

\tI~)\1
:.

tIC~r.I!>~sor brc:tk \.ypc:r:u,lcs.

L:~ttcrlj the .\ttel lake thm<: \\'I:"~J
(In ('rt:t11t $Qrts u~ t ~}'c::"[C~P1~S~.
., HClc:ro!,)gu;...J
~~.
h3~ bc(~n r(l~\lsccl
.by
'I
qm
noW
lymg
nn~l
thdrab.!li.ml,;\tC cnJ!ut1lttcd
b(!~'H1SC
hcu~to1<)~k"l'. .rhcsc sort~ Arc intctcstitlg;
,

wl~nt.':tb.C'Y :tb$t.r:\c~ ,fi.l1ni: (~~ig(!) ~)f

r;uU:Al})' HJntl.::r and. pa~u~~,r(h$~JmL1r

I

by lI\l'31l5 of wl~iCh K:mt

"

'

1know of no groundsfor tl.ti!'

bdicf.
lh;}t
wc can ever say ol :l gIVcn

It follows lhat. 1 (10 !\l,t think

~ymb()l:;arc now adctiu:m';
codc.~Yn1b{)li:i1tlin f~lrm:lllogic that it~
(Jf:lll p<miblc dincl"cnt:t"$nf t)'1'!; or (i>on.
for the .s~'lUb()lb.ntit'1l'
(,f
t:ount~,
bl."a,'cl1\.1:UC
fi?r the ~x\ubitil)1I ",f:lll the lYP<1~.111:1
'i.
dilfc~tm:c~ that C01l'Cl'tI us iu the c.:-l1m: IJf ~Oll\:: putkular
inquiry.

'

~sS:ag;timt t:\li:gmr-r\I1~.

trndidoJ\ullt.>gk.

Thct~ ,QJ'C.
dier.e huoC()II~trltt.t~(\1\S
tiltitc to~tcrof ofP:t1f?lish
them;
"adt\1l.~ G;\tnbits lit; C'h<:ss,bill
gr:munOltkal
V;Inctu:s.
:lIul tl\~rc Me variO\lS
table of d\Osc
()f c:\t('gorics, :'
$~':t1lcnCt~.bUl there C:lll be 1\0 ~-.<")1'IIpletc.
Schob~ticis11t Is lite bdief in suillc' dcc.:\loguc
. '

l(cl1ibQdy th('s~ c::n,cgbdes. Sd,nict:i.ph)'sk:ll

TCCOlrl-

Sl'ccJcs of d1C:.\~ntCn.~rhls ,ccntS to b~ IHLr.c:\nyth.

they :II"C

t1l(,'.IU,

c>:clt1pMy.
S3YC hy

,
,
Atp:1~11t;1I6f,~1l0rnCJ1t~
of tll\~C ,and \U1~(I:l~. b,~l1Ig U1 !UtC:;
,,
:Iccordh1g to ca\j~,,1
"'lil1g ntlltatit1t1S ot pc.rj.1ettl3.tioll~ uf stntc
~U\pidc;n1, n~ltS,t\"1JcL J1<}thinS i.1ou-~mpirk;tl
:1~~.~~vcrytlung
~
pr()l'()$itio~l~lre~-

nHO hctt:n?t?CUcLlic5,

one:, .
I bdicvr,
D f(ire lC::1\;.\ugtbe Itl!1tocy of the topic, we sh.)ulJ !\tmcc
prcsupp<>shiul\ which Aristotle ~tld (.,(.cuntcl11ror:try
K~l\t share. whkh plulosophcl'S._
j~.'
.
o{:
unrcf1ccti\"e1y.!bated hy n numhcr
:t
fmite
c:at.alogue
l\1:lt therc t"'xists
N:'II1\I:.I)., it was 5\1PP')::tl
iu..t:mcc, lll:1t. t\1~r.C t:'Xist jus~ t~n (oj"
c.~tt;gprie:, 4.?f t)'P~~. .fLlr
clght) 'typ~5 (If terms, or th:\t thL1rt~cXl:it JlI~t
t'\\"dVl~ JlItIJ~I11C:1\l
,",,,,islju.st t\i.,'t'IIW-~i~ kttc,'~ h. we: 1!11.~1)~h
p:\tlcrm:, j,U.l;t11$~hc~
chcs~bu,,~J.
:aud. JUSt $1:\
squares un the
111plU1bct,.ju50ixt)'-Ii:Jur

1~

'

7}

the ,r.Ol1c~rctt~'fiu:tors wltkh

cst,ahUshc.&,

Nor: docs bc' c:.'(pl~n how

or 'ymbolize.

ill ab~tr:JC"ti,n" fr\Hn

()
C 'r f:G Jar: ~
"
t)'pc_h\\1Hog<:ncilic:\

'$:tcurda,y
is in bed'
in the gcncrnuo\l
"':, tic~ 10"':not obvious but nuuifli~t lhem~cI"c:s,
df couuaJictivt\s ot: vicious cirdcs. ",hcrc:ls

.,,,,,,,,..

\,.)j,

.
I.Ar'I\;UJ\Gl:
: <.;.'::,:.
I.' j!l ,)bv.iou.5Jy abSI,u:d before: ;lUr commJicti.bnsarc
~CCrJ 1.1.)rcsulr,:,::}
/"

'.l,lldC

I\NIJ

.t.ro~~bc.l1ipotf.\$i$;dJ.:H..jt
ili ti:~IC:-.
, .
M.Qtcovcr~t
c;:1t1,beact!uilly
.Jcdb}'

. .

sctnn,ingir\.alid

. .' r.
:Jrgumcnt.'l :[/

to pr(}~ouudw!:t,propO:iitions.of
the former ,sort", v,,11<:r~.1~ only (;
dlC deliberate mtcOtlQIt to ptoduce haldtr.d:tsn.Woll.ld get uf to j:
(otJllub.tc $CJltCDi:Cs()f
the ~;lUC[sort. 'rl1.1ti~,$0111."
t)'P~U'C$PIUScS::
:arc ~dio~.~:~th~"$
tlre~ot. :kisUI(:2tUiii!iotl'f':Qnc$ ,,,Meh j
for.c~ ..U~to <rdiiSUlc.iq'pc.r~ilC$: .UIC"otllc;rii'we ~My .
~tfcndbC':I
~o,:;
bt."C;nl~~
Wc.'-aro':dtt;jdy cQmiocriug t\'r6-t1IIc:~. Ullt'it ,\-ould
~.
J1\is~kc to r('~trkt thctJlt'or)' of trpc~ to the Ulcoq' of ct'rcai.n
.
spcCJ~.Itypc--rules,.' .

Tp":t.~ ~ht,9:\tc~tioiiTo.\V.ij~,tt~pc ()r.G.tt~gorydO~$so.aud 51)

~1~l1gZ I,S.t<~.~~. hJ.wltat orb of. true or Eihc'propt)sitioil$ :U1~
1ft WAa.t P<)S1t10!1l'Jll~c.rn cl\n' Sl) :tlld.:so en ten Or, to put .Jt
~cln.:1q.nciU}',it wtp':uklo whnt:5tlrt5 ofuOJl-.,{,sun.1$Chtt'JIC~D.ud
. in.,~J~ l'Osi~oriJ.JIt, tilc:rU.C;Jil-~~ ~x.l't~!.iou.' ~o .a.udso' cliter I
and.,~tonvcr~lfj Wl13t sOJ"t~'(jf<~CtltCi1t~fwouJd be .i~rltlcred
~bsuI:d.by, d~. $U~t:ii(ll111 {bc onc. or t.hci, ~CJ1tl.jlt&;'&tt6r~of:thc
c:xJ!t'CssIon';;0 :I.IIJso';' I :Jdopt the ,;;ord
'~h~urd' hi pi~~'.rcl1cc
to 'uo1Jscnsit"::lJ"or 'J)t~lliJ1glt."$s' [(JI' tbc.n:.1son rh:tt hPth the two
last w()rd~ arc ~oli]i!thn,c!'u3cd fi)rnoj~c.~ likl' 'bnHig' :\ntl ':1111'.1ud:tbr:t', and sometimcs for ~(JIl()c:auon$ ot wohl~ h:wing 110
rq;uur gr;unnJaticaJ CQJ1Structiou, Moreover, both ll~vc recentlv
been ad~pt.c~! fi)f.l)plC!~lIi:,,~pnrP9!;ts iiJ :1id of:1 sf't'cbl theory,
Absu,rd 113shdpful.nssoculuonsWIth the ,dud;" lId (,bm,.JIJ/II. ;mll
C\'l7rits nUance 6fridicl1l()usucs~ iSQ\cfil1 rather th~lII the rC'\'el'$C.
lor so mati)' jl\kes :uc in I~Cl trrc-pmnb.

\VIJ.n

AIlB JYI'.I!$ TUJ:s

Onl}' l'xJwcssiom' .c:i11 he ailimwd

~arure rcovhJcs'J\i? :Jb~uJ:djdc~; flnr

uch ;1~hdid50r

or

dt.'IIic\1 to bl' absurd.

"Ill we C\"(.'IIS.:IVthat t"Ollt.ht~

.si'l'P~~!~ ('r C'J'J!H.'t'ptioll~

"rc or aT(."UI)t ab~~;rd, ,i. ..
f'(lr :w11:ltt.. :llmtrd
isUnthiuk~bJ~,
.
I

n~ t():Jdv(''ftt.<e a.U ~enl11e

iil. tll~. ~CIU:IU~G .

in~u~~~Sj

in.$u~h

:l}.yay

tl13t w(' art c:olI~dCrtllg' wlwi:hcr slIch'

..~
..

and surW CXPfC1Sk;tI$Jt\:t)'or IH:\}' /lot be couplcd in sllch :mil?'

llch. \~}'i '\\:ith o~ter :c~1>J'C1$ion!>,

i.,

..

",

\.,'

77

.the. t1~lIgcri~. of c(JIjrsc~ th~t w~ sh;dl he laken .~~~ sha.1l

lll~wittiugl)' luke ol1r~cl"t~sto be talkmg gmUlIl1:1r,:tj If. It :was
h:1\'C':s.lngu1ar
aU p'~rt l)[?TIC topjc to ~:\y :Pl~l,r;IJ1I:..>umc;~:1l\<>t

"-crbs and The dou(..'(lhlle Ul .. . u lithe can be (:ol.l1pleted

with "What }'OUarc flOWsaying. . ," :t1ll1c;annot be completed'
.

"..

..
.
WJt
' I1 Wh :it I nrt1 IH'W S3)'lIIg. . . ,
Welty" d~c:u;to'j;:!}".tJ1:1tnhsurditics t~S\lh /Tom d.lc imrrop;r
coupHrit; hot. of c"JtrcSsioil5 {,ut or what the (;'>:p"C~$H>IIS
SlWUty.
though the coupling \I!ld mi.H:oupling or thcm is dr.:ctcd by
op~ratillg llpon. u1dr c:xprcssiOlI'l; .
.nUt t(.crc i~ .110.1:
:am! l~i1IU10the ;my univucal title: (~Ir all the
sW!y!t:d/tlofeJtprC$si,:'m.silicc:lf Lhere \v:i..~sllch :1 rid:. 1111d,lC~l'
sigriijlc(Jtdw()tilcJ he of ul1e amI UIl1S:lII1CtYJ!e.!.Aud JUSt Llus 1~
wJi:lt was. ~t bottom wrong with thc'lQch:~lI. t\:'wliuCJIt'gy ot
'idtn' and the. Mdrlougiun tClIJtiuulogyof'Qbjt<:ts". wcmJs wl~kh
.
were, employed to J~c(forlU 1:X:1Ctl)'thj$ itripo~ibJc t:isk.
Othcr commonly
U!icd titlC$. h:l:\rc CKtra rma.11\CC$ :'5 well.
'T~l1ns' rcuiu5 SOlllt~ of its. tr:tditiollal nssoci:ttiol1s :t1IJ should
be mcd. if :It all. 01' p;\rl'kul:i"s-ijl'-l II:tlitic~-nr-r",'btiom.
t.tl~"
'CLII1C'CptS'dOt~i,lint cover cillwr p:u lieu J an or cl\tirl~ prupo~it1()11~
or c:-\'~'n cOUll'k'~l1s elf cOl1ccpr~. SII I use .I.'IC.1!,o.<jtiqn-f..ctol"
(Intcnding it to l1:wc :.1.11I'n~,~jhll' typc-;ullbigll\(k~).
lI.I r;olll."ct
wh"'tt\'cr
is r.igTlHicd b}' ;IU}' (.~~pn ~inn, $iUlJ1lc- or c0111plt'x.
wl.lieh

~:111b(.' \1 cl.iJlt}'h:lHt'l1l

t~) :1!pp-si!!,n

ill &OIllC s,.lJtt-:1!.a:-rr:!nlC'

(I[ oLhr.r (or' wl\ic.h CUI h~' :J v.:thtc IJf;1 v:tri:\hlt in ~OIHCpropCl~itiemaJ fUl1t:tion or <1llicr). And, if askCl1 ~tlcll </lICSlioIlS 35 Do
pmposition-f:tcro~
I:.'\Lm How m:my of th(,l11. :tre dlcrc~ An:
they fII~ltah
\V.h:lt :uc ihcy likc~ lI1}' amwcr is 'All mch
1.llICSrioll'i :lfl' ridic:tI!.'UI<. :-;iIlCl: f.,c.tor" j.; and is 1I1I':lIll {I) be tJw
mc(:lil1g~pl:tct: L)[aU l)'pc-:ul1bigililid.
,
Of L'Ollut w(' could di~f't:mC' with allY ~'III.:I,'.\"(11,1 II!, fllfl~:tipt1~
:m: purdy ~tdlll~"ilphk,
(~I.IL.~tiOU;al.Hwt ,1I:t: ~ypc~ o( f:1ct'~)r~
:lrl" In :t W:\Y, j11st ql1"srioJ.1~ :\hnllt' the I'of,\lblhlli:~; 01 nHlglllfi(:tuce of C.~C11;\jl1
d;ls~~!j d' (~~prc.~5io:l$, Hut ju~t ~I\ ",/: '(:II:.tO]"
idiom (like tltc.'.idc:t' idiom) is Ji~bJc ttJ ~nt~p m iu myth. so ,the.
$t'n~:UIili:. .J.i:UoiJIis liilb~d to Ct~tr;lp tl.~ in :i coilfmi,m httwt.'cu
logiC:tT nifJ'grMiUll:itiCtl.l qucs.tion~'
Two, tJr(}po$ititln-f~t:tOr::; :U'~ of i:jiffi'tl:ut C3tt."grJriC$or t},J\e~.
if dn:rc ~rc: 5C11tcnc~frntnc~ mdl that when the (,";{prC'iSil'tm[(.)r.

..

Olli

.S~'J~js.ou theiwh.~l~)pr\tdcm.
b) talll.lc)git
~1.~'IJJ\::Au4.tpG)rutu~~r:o,\jr: dl.eQtics.al1d

I. t, I IH;() III r:.s

.I:.:':>...r~

UN

l.UGIC

ANV

.,

LANGUI\(.;

: .fncf~rs ~rc imp01:tcd :1,\ ,,!twlativc

:Q.ml?lc.II1~J}ts to the,
g:!t"'~Jg1J$.. Ule resultant scntences arC'.~lgl1ihc:mt in the Olle'
111d:ab~urJ in Ule:(!~ilc~. It is lC'1IP.u'nl; but 11()~CJuite C('lrrc~t

arc.'of the sa.mc.typc

";:1~the con\'el~r:
~l tlu:.; th:1( t..vo J.1CtOf1I
.
rc~ts':any c:a~!=whcn: both C311fd! the S.'IJI(:g:ll" Por 'I "lid
.

: ;l~j
:-r~
"i}.i' ':

l~nt~d from 3 l:h:tractcr whil:h my forcbc;l.1:s bC:QIlC2lhcd :\Ud my !

sclt(;C'1 moulded, nnd ~o 011.
Nt>w if the "pp;ucnt colltr:1(lict.km or, rather. cb.~s of C:01\tr:\:-.
dicli(m~ i~ ('('.soluble, it call on]y be b~C;-~\1~C
,the k'glct) forms of
had slIp},>oscd.
t.he l;ol1illcting I'rop(,~iti\'l1~ arc not wll:\t"':c,
l,r
the
limns
of
prol~n~1t10115or,
thc. typC\.
since. it is only hi \'itwc
{l)[ unply che
or their factors U1:tt tlley do (or do hot) Imply

..ll..
.
.
';\~f'

1\'~1tcr l'[ um papl'f' C:<l1Ib~ :lhclUal"i VI: I!<,'millativcs rt) 1t...'SIS.' .."ig~.
.

;lIif.r.c:u\t~'\UtCI~\~(:S
hut hmh C3mim fdl the gap in "

: 1
.

, , 11(.'n',

.-:. ';:

::

~ .p.:\fU" It 1,111~)\v~.
tI~:\t though !\c:trlj, it I.s,not q~.irc truc

. .:.

,',

. t

. I
. ,.

: I

..

Tut! GENJi!\iS 011 Tnn-llUmllS

we COJII('to bc' ('.,.~~rci!ed:iboui: th~ fo('m~ of pr~jpoor the typC1IpfpropO!ii tlOu-f.1c(l)ha Or. w pur j t in :11C'5S

..lciOIlS.Typc-.-prohlcms seem to he {()recd UpOll liS ill p\'o

..
'.'

lI\ll(~n we :uc carned

away by. \'lttUO~lty.
our .()pct:ttiom
.<
~'
.; l'~(JtJirics suds :IS this OIlC, into the:. n:atur: ~)f .~~tcgOrlC~, or Into.
the st'cdcs of rd:1tkms :Ire in ,ct stich. tcdn\J.~:Jl q~1cstJOn':. D~t
any lll\(;JJ:\r~cd Cl'llCCl't is Ji:}blc Cl.lgcncrntc :UltU:J,?IJJlC~.r~r tgnorl;lnp.li~~uOlU :-and
:l.tl<:c of,ia d13Ct is ignOi::mcc,.?f ~Olne l)~ ~lC
COI\CC;pt.,(of
cc)n~1~1dbilitics or che propoSItIOns (:OI~t31tJUlgJ;t.
do,
cpn'iJucIIJ ,cmc, o,f [he ~cicl1~:s mid of phl)osopb)' It$~lf~;m ~~
0(,
311 gen<:rate' :lntmol11Jc~" Il~c prohl:1l\
of the mte:j\al~l1'
rdations (\t05~~out of IIJIt1lt0 1111
C'Sn:mluug from the plulost phels
tcchhk.'ll concept \,f ,d"I;":/.

W2Y!'-

1 I...,w MH. TYI't's DP.TI'I! :ttHJH

l"\.)p~~itil1l\ j~l1plie~. il
It h:\~ IOllg h~1'1I l:no\\'l1 tll~t )":~:1'~M
~
'.
The.:~l\_I)W,)~
:trU~~~'hahlt,
1~..~tI'j11Jl;Li~ ill ,'irlllc of jt~ r?I:~H:

T!u:fC.arc cnll(;cp~ with 'which we :uc perfectly r.'1illil.i:tt

!:i,I~ we :uc pC'rft:C'tlycompcteJlt to c:01pl(l)' - im:~~;U1tly
trig. for ~nst:il1a:. jn qt1i:.sti~~l1s
whjd] w~ know qllitc\yclJ
., solve. "\ c[ W~t)lcda3it"s of ordiuary propmitioU5 em.bodyICor OIort' or such COI1.~'('rt!i,~l'IIIC (;1fwhich rWJH:>sitions
~'e perfectly {;()od rca~ollS JiJr :,ccc ,ting ~s truc, :l\'C.ruled

J';lti~,lc 1I11l1.iuc:oUl}!:m!!lc,.\'.'\lh.
t.l'~ ~I~gIVC'the~~c1

~Is,c ~y oUter p"l'p{1sj~i,obs. IllI <:$5well :Jllth<::ntlc;\tc\I,

I}'~g orht'.T ~!lI:ll!)' f:tJilll,ar concepts,
In :I word, we Ilrc
I1ted by :tUtUlOIWCS, \Ve.arc ~1I1"Clh~tsohl~
out 1)[ one
~fp(9PO~ilj"J.\$. :uc. tr:t!C..:lUtJ. th~t s(~!n~. QUt .~f :mothcr.
~~(i..tn:c. )".et the trmJjuf:ilny
.rrqhiJlc
ijii&'faJI\ily. ~CCt1t$.
lO" COIltrAd1Ct Ill! out. of,tl~,. .othc!~" 1~~\1l :b~.Dt 5tkk rind
~'is stmightj
1 aUt to hL1mt: f~;r an a~cn~jUjd
rhc':action. . .
.
. .
.

t~ use dJCII1UpOIllo<:b whirll were rCc:'kiln\l\t~c:rl'rc \':c stnr~cJ,

. _

\V do'

w:mt to he StllC of the: dc\igllS \)f !Jur tt:1Jc-kc)"s bct::\mc we want

l
is itself t1:\cttlbout the. types

~:'.r;Igbl ~;:"y,wh:tt 1lI:>J.:t.'.S

it urge-lit {tl[ It'>to find definhioll$
IJy~~ 01 COIlt:(:pt:.! rO,r",~ d~i not g1":ltuitouslr rUJIII1l;Jgc ill
n:mcs ()T rtlcydnf':tnhas
aftcr notiom (In \\'hidl to perfCllIl1

"
of
(21.!}tien; 'whcn we have bCG',u~ to C'~plorc. the I11cch;\lIIC$
fllld
0rursc1~cs
c.lUb~r:
S(11)~:o..fpur Cl'nc('pt~ :l\uI prl~pOSIt10115,'":~,
V.;c are no~. qUlt~
r~cd by Sml1L' purdy t('clullc:l1 perl'tcxJtJcs,
13ut we on})
sure how t() lISCour own rroi~slQll:\l.ill1plclut'11t~,

.~, .,..
." "

. .

I1cg:ativcl 00 one nJ)(Jthcr.

. th:t.tC\~cry gap-sign III Jts context 11\a dl~trniUllatt sc:iltl'L'lce.: indit;ilt:.'i. dlC:CRtC:gorr of:ll} its possible.complcmcnts.
)Jut
qf tYl'ii!aUy. cl(~
Ia
r:lCuclll:at"
!f.\p:-~igll
is
thll~
tdlt:t:aO_t'
'="'tt:
Ir COU1r1c.>J~Jl'nt),
th;H g:\p-sigl1 ha~ ~ypk"L :lmhiguic)"\vhith
tc.r s}'UlboIl$uJ wc)ulJ ~!\C:.lJ":' F~)r tJl!.' r.\(~t that :I given ga
.::otc:~..fral\lc rail ht: hUed by c()111plctnclJt~
bCtwcr1l whic 'I
.

;\rc.~n
diffCrclIces o[fora'n
154:ctCllt coiupku.\r;'utr.;

',:1)

(~" TIlGOI-l,IES

;.

1~:tJ~O!n, t~)

;,
:III dIe l.ogiral relatIOns 01 I'n'pt)~ltlon. ~:U1w1y w.h:tt 11 1111p~.\e,:,.
j<;implil',l
hy,
wkct
it i~ cn\l1I~;lllblc, with. ;lml wkt.c ,It I~
wh...t il
it\()mJ':'tibl~' with, N,'\'.', an}' t<'SIR'''! \J\ wlu~h t"'(.' .1':I:.l'I'~lt.\lJIIS
differ ill [01\11 will bl' rr:Al'cu'd in di{kn'nn:..s 111thclr Iwmm.
$.,
tw~ l'rop~,sitlol~~ wllic;h 3~'C f(.rm},ll}? simil".r in :tl,' r~~~'~rrs 1i"\'CI.
. ..: u1;lt une f:u:tor III r,me IS dl f.ftrcnt ~n typt: 6'OlU :a p:lrtl:!.l\) corres- .
~r(t.corrt'S'~~:ii;~iic.iingfactor in tll~ o'th~r. will1,l:rvc l~iluo~\S \v~d~
.';:r]?onclingly dis,;imibr, hi~t.,,"'1 ~he }1:lis9HS ofll.'prOp?SllluH do not
:md. wh:tt
~:~crdY"r~flc1.J tht' forll\.:Jl.rropt:rtk'$.qrtJIC:ptOpO~J.UOIl

:'-:!~:"".'

..~:i8J\..')/'.s

ON

(,OG(CI\ND

I.ANGU'J\GE,

..:~:,~~d~_y~1y:~~:.~Q~ofall~:I:l2tor~,
In:l ctrt.~ittscnsct.thcy
ar<;' .'/
~"::;t.#{~~1~~.;~i$i/ro
kno'w,cuLA.bol1t its .Ji.~~$oU5d$tCl',~ow 'all .;.~
:': .~~~~~.;ij\.c.~f.~r.:u1~L.strtJCtUrc
'of:,the; 'p'l'Op(jS.ltt~~~-:;:W,d..:vI~ .-v.~~.
.,:;
:,
.t., ,
Jm..'l.'
;",
l ;::..-;;:.
:;::~~ .~r~$~,;'~9~'?9L1.'UXclt~Cr,~

,
L.:,rr'::"',..'L" '.,
.. .,:tlt~"~~~i~~~~~~SUJ.~~WJ " .'

'.

..

' tJ}9tJ~.~
.
lu~I~.~tij~'~'lit;bCfdrc
:..c;ui':O~i:dt;t ~~Iii! othct\\'i~~ 1,could not"9~. tI~C\y.~~i~ror nttti-1 I.!;
,
ul:m:ues.' '. ,. .,.
. ;3.
:. ..

:~ '\.',., ~.g,~.~o.~~~.n.tl.its1i..~i&O~;

.'

;"4

. ..'111e:0P.~t.i<:jil ofcxtrn<;ting the tn)C of a.l2ctor'c:ariJ1qt exclude

'.
. .~':operii~o.n
'of fC"C3liiJg tbe l.i,aiM)II~of propositi6r.l$ e:[jibodying
it~. Jr~'c;sscu.c~they U.rc~pm: OpCX:1t'i01L
Ofco~'nc.wjth
the :&rni1iac

tipon .wJ~kL. I()~i(:~:tns }l:1VC: worke.d

:j;~fU' .?~..P~~11'<).ijtioJ.i~
.r0~
.~ ~lts ,o..r d:l ,~~, we short-<:
.'J~CUltthe 1nCflllry. by cubsuuuug
..
:.~.~~~;
~?dl';t,:tbe::\ppror~Jltc
.r-0rnu~J;lc.,..put~o be .tOld thb.t
'fJ;~stiOJ.1:~:o.tt.h~
fQDUS,;ap, {)r'oft.h~'~11U'.E~
,
;x'';''''VX'
.~~~~';I
,:
'\Yt)
. ".,' j~j~:~O[;hU;1tr.unbs.
~~~'.tiP .)c t~ '.WOl'~ Wit!iWc.;~,odc.5~9h:~QiOidm!tt9
clll::.nt1~~..o.c'dlC1rusc.whiclJ 'Utcab~ tmlcs~
v.;~.~~:w:h&
to,f;~~i1 olf 1I1l:.r4i~t>ns. We y:tttan. (If
w~idl :Ire
.

. .

..~~:ili~:~lUi,~b~iPi-cIip:ib.C'. '::-'

'

':.

.
,r~Qw~eop~~M'
'Of~ttillJJ~~g the IWrons..of#. pt~po5id()11
',.j~:.~~ ;~c':tffi'ity~frl1dodlJ:J,ti~~n.;or :tr.gtllurotabau: (iu' \vJ1jd~.of
, ~.
Yt~~:..n,~,,'1'1()t ~c, .th9ugh.. thert: 1naY::~4 :t pole,nual

. ~~~.~).. .'.Met t~~~v4Y

pl1i1o$Pllhiziugiis :trgUing; And. jtis
j~~~:ili4cl~~d1t
of.r;tiiooU3tioil'\vhkh.
RSafl.de;.islcft::our of
.
the'{a~~~-tLtf~c;Jit1iti()11.S 0" phuosoJ}hy 0111'an:tlysis'.. toot..these
Seri~3lIy suggest th:1r DHal)'5Ulg j$ SOUle sore of p:1rnphr~sillg"
Ih~c.~omc SQr~ of'p:tr.aphr:t~c -throw III) phi1os~)phjc."\J light, f(,r
thC}. WJ to. c:xWbitjwnhoro
f~atltrc.'S of proPOSHiL111s uud their

F.J~?r.;: ?b~rlty.:\bout
wJ~dt iilvolvcs
u.~ iJi:Ji1ti.t!:o)j~~~.,113.IUc:Jr
~.'IW~.
)vhi~dlow
f.rom:ot COI1.StltUtOthclrJlJgl~:tyJ'C$
." met. (oftiis; .
Mci:e.jj)Cie~!ic uf pr6~xjty is. lI"t C11oUgh.
W1H'11 an
~~ii;Cb~
J.B ~P.?i1~~~j~
one ~d wbt~1I liCIt.;a,rt:fO.t~ler t}Ut"ItJ~l1$ da,e disciWiOJt\\:lfw]uth
wOI!ld lIot ht'i'e be Ifl. ~Jp.cc. .

TJU!. T:yJtI; (J11G 1~(,'h).-I'1I0I'osmoNs!

;1.;;;~Jt:~::~J;9P9#~OD . i1;lqt~8~o/-prop()Si.ti(),!.\i~~Wc~
.
.3~ettS
:'s~)n.;:~tJii6g'::iip.~t]hc:
Jogi(:tiJtyU;t:;})[ ri.,facTot-,of k~,(;(
~q~s.
.,~~~~tfu~~J~3~c:.,b.tc1.1. .~ffici.111~::~~ogJ1ilCd:".~t~"'~1~qW~:,\tjtli

.'~~~t~:~'~."~~~~;1

,~'i;jt~~~:if~b~.(nn(;c'~'::'J~:~:~..
:~~~1

C./\ 1'IH, 0 1t11!!i

~.I

.!

. 'couut'Uctic>I1',
.

ICntt'gQrf..

C1c.

wt7cd~'" C;irn:'lp II1jsl~ctingl)"

We

coul~l

,-:'\lli,d.1<:5c

~~at~G9ry-

c'Alls.tl1tl11 ItIIJ\'crAAI wo~cl.~

lUn
~
{:)~;) [dpu~.i.tiIJ1\s. ~.~~~t~j~' .that :~;1~.tp~. .:lr~. ~p.,.~nU:
crj1d ~er'..9!il}'
~:.:, mI, r.~v~t)~.
<;):},r .~s*)~~.Ii~1JJ proposll'OI1~ ass tlI1g .
t4.a~. (~~wrs
. .'
:lrc of dL~~t1bcd
.
..
.~P~J.'
.,
.
I
'

~t

"

All $uch p~OpOSlt.1(1ns

.arc.pJu!osoj1hcrs
~ orO$~tl()u.s(not
hccC'5snrily, of course, of 'profc~slol.1:tl or .p:u!i
ptllJo~o~JJers).
. 2nd the Conversejsaho, ) !:Iullk. true.
Now itss(''fciof1sRbout the t}'pd 1.'),f:ti:h1r$
:in:. \..
:u \\'1..'J~.\.\<.t
~CU.
. nt(,.'rti~l;sabout \vh.at sOrtS uf cUl1Ibihal'ions oft\tClIi
~~ic.bothcr
.

factors would ;lnd whar would not produce a~sll.rdItJC$.And

nS only collocations of symbols CoUt~c Rsscrtcd.J? ~I.~.ab~,~~d or,

ci>risc(illl~lnly,
. dcni~ 'to hd absurd. it. (i)JJo.\\<$th:Jt CAt.cg(.1r}'~t.opOsitjow atc' ~1ii.i1tric prop6sitiow.
T~~ doc~ .n~t uitJ11y
tlut..LhC)';1feof the: ~:U~Jc rypcs.ia$ the pio.j)O~1tIQn~o~ pJulol~1Sl!;,
Rriintn!:a~jiu1for ~cx.\c01trat'[~c s. Thcrt..arcnot ~ngh~bC3tt=goryproHQ~UOllS3Sopposcd.tQ.GemulJ 0IJCS,or OCCIdental oppos<;d
~
to Oriaital. Nor docs. it .Imply that they can say UO~uDg.abo.l.1t
the ~l1at1ii-c.of ili.iftg~'. If:\ c11i1d'j(perplexity .~\'J~);tltc~.~qlt.'itor
C:lUbe crbssed bQt'uot set-n, or wby du: Ch(,.1~tre C:\t cc;.u1dnOl
lca~~ i~~~rill b~~dj(jJ
i,cl'ple>clty :a~oi.1tthe "liattrc o~..,:hi1~'.
thcii ~h.~at.cg?~y,;,.pt.6p~sit.i()JJj \\i1~.?ivcthe rC9u'ccd'~~o~-.
dort'a.bbutthc natUre .ofthine:s. And tHe same w,U holdgood 01.
l~j; ::.6:i\~olou~
But what :lrc 111c testS of
, t')ipo-:m16dliCj;'
absu:rdjt)~'