SANSKRIT D R A M A A N D T H E SPECTATORS A study based on published and unpublished dramaturgical texts

by J. K. BALBIR
Paris

" A play without an audience is inconceivable", and Sanskrit drama was no exception to this dictum. For the outward expression of his innermost experience, an artist takes recourse to the brush and paint and a writer to pen and paper, but a dramatist has to put up "a representation of the state of the three worlds" ( b h a v a n u k g r t a n a m - NS 1. 106) before an audience assembled in one place, generally in a play-house (nat.yavegma, nat.yag.rha, prek.sag.rha) for which we find elaborate details in the second chapter of the N~.tyag~stra (Ng) of Bharata. Sanskrit drama was always considered as a "spectacle or show to be visualised ''1 Some literary works like the Kfivyamimgfias~ (KM), Sarhgitaratn~kara (SR) and Sarhgitamakaranda (SM) refer to palace-theatres, and works on Hindu architecture like the gilparatna (gR) and the M~nas~ragilpag~stra (MS) mention the details of the seating arrangements in such or other places of dramatic performances. ~ One of the plays of Kglidasa asserts that the theory of drama is essentially to be complemented by practice (prayogapradhanarh hi nat.yagastram, M~lav. p. 17). 3 Many Sanskrit dramatists like Kfilid~sa, 4 Hats.a, 5 BhavabhOti, e and Vig~khadatta 7 testify to the fact that the audience was particularly cultivated and appreciative for "the drama.., succeeds when it is approved of by the people, as the people are considered to be the (ultimate) authority" (Ng. XXVI. 120).
1 R f t p a m d.r~yatayocyate -

Da~arfipakam 1.7.

2 Cf. NS. XXVII. 74 (Kashi Sanskrit Series, 1929); N~yasarvasvadipikfi, a manuscript from the Sarasvati Bhavan Library, Banaras. This does not exclude the existence of purely literary dramas. Abhirftpabhf~yi.st.ha pari.sadiyam - Abhijfi~na. 1, p.(N 8 irnaya Sagar Press, 1948); pari~ade.sa purve~am kavfnam d.r~taprabandha - Vikramo. 1 p. 8 (ibid); abhihito'srai vidvatpari~ada... - Mhlavik~t. 1. p. 2. (NSP). s Pari.sadapyes.~ gu~agr~hi~i - Ratn~. (NSP) 1.5. e ,4dist.o'smi vidvatpari.sada - Mfilati. 1.5; aryamigran viffiapayami - Uttara. 1. p. 3. (NSP). Cf. Tripurfiri's comm. on ,4ryamigra.
Yat satyam kgtvyaviAe~avedinyam pari~adi prayu~jfmasya mam~pi cetasi sumahdn parito~ahpradurbhavati- Mudr~t. 1. p. 13 (NSP).

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In view of the rising popularity of Sanskrit drama as an essential source of cultural renaissance in India, and the frequency of the presentation of Sanskrit plays in India and abroad, it may be worthwhile to evaluate the qualifications of the spectators who could appreciate in full the niceties of the four kinds of histrionic representation (abhinaya) s that characterised the Sanskrit drama. Because the successful drama like the kdvya in general has its soul enshrined in Dhvani, suggestion (k~vyasy~tm~ dhvanir iti, Dhvanygloka I. 1), the enjoyment of aesthetic pleasure is possible after a certain discipline by study, culture and experience. ~ It is only the heart of a sahrdaya, bh~vaka, or rasika (connoisseur endowed with "latent impressions of experience 1~ which can be attuned to the work of art for "the mirrors of spirit of such people alone are cleaned and become receptive by the pursuit and exercise of poetry". 11 While describing the creative (k~rayitr 0 and receptive (bh~vayitr 0 inspiration, Rajagekhara enunciates the latter as helpful to the subject who receives the poetic impression? ~. This kind of inspiration alone can bring out the effort and the intention of the poet; it is because o f this that the tree of the activity of the poet bears fruit, otherwise it will be sterile, is. It is the bhavakas or rasikas who take delight in observing the ten varieties of r@akas, 14 and a thoughtful, learned connoisseur is called a bh~vaka 1~. It has, therefore, been rightly observed that "all the spectators are not apt to relish the rasa; it is a sort of a prize one has to deserve after an assiduous study of poems and healthy and delicate impression accumulated f r o m the previous births. ''16 In the texts on dramatic theory various words are used to designate the spectators, such as prek~aka, lr s~mfljika, is sabhya, 1~ and sabh~sada; 2~ 8 The four kinds are: .~gika (pertaining to Gestures), Vacika (to words),/fharya (to dresses and make-up), and Sattvika (to temperament). Cf. NS. VIII. 9. 9 Bhfivaprakfiga (BP) GOS. no. XLV. Baroda, 1930, p. 41, line 5. lo Sav~sananarn sabhyandm rasasyasvadanam bhavet- Dharmadatta quoted by Vigvan~ttha in Sghitya Darpan.a, III, p. 84 (NSP). 2z On Sahrdaya, see Abhinavagupta in his commentary, the Locana on Dhvanyaloka 1. p. 13 (NSP) who is quoted verbatim by Hemacandra in his Khvygnugasanam (NSP) p. 3. 12 "The r61e of bhftvaka, receiver of the poetic impression is one of the original concepts of Sanskrit poetics". L. Renou, Kavyamimarhsa (Paris, 1946), p. 60 fn. 31. 18 Kavyamirnarlasa, Vgrfm.asi, 1934, p. 48, Cf. L. Renou, op, cit., p. 62. z4 DagarQpakam (DR) and Avaloka on DR (DRA) 1.2. zs SLlaitya-Sara(SS), TSS. 1948, III, 46. le S. L6vi, Le thddtre indien (Paris, 1890), p. 258. z, Bhgvaprak~ga VIII. 1. 8 ft. p. 226; Nftt.akalak.san.aratnakoga(NLRK), Oxford. line 2184. ~s Bharata cited by Rueipati on Anargharfighavfi I. prose after verse 7. Rucipati states "sabhayamupavi.st.dye sabhyah sdmajikagca re, iti Bharata.h".

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members sitting in the assembly are called sabhya or samajika. ~1 According to the NS, "those who are possessed of (good) character, high birth, quiet behaviour and learning, are desirous of fame and virtue, impartial, advanced in age, proficient in drama in all its six limbs, alert, honest, unaffected by passion, expert in playing the four kinds of musical instruments, acquainted with the costumes and make-up, the rules of dialects, the four kinds of histrionic representation, grammar, prosody, and various (other) dastras, are very virtuous, experts in different arts and crafts, have fine sense of the sentiments and the states, should be made spectators in witnessing a drama. Anyone who has unruffled senses, is honest, expert in the discussion of pros and cons, detector of faults and appreciator (of merits), is considered fit to be a spectator in a drama. He who attains gladness on seeing a person glad, and sorrow on seeing him sorry and feels miserable on seeing him miserable is considered fit to be a spectator in a drama". 2~ It means that a person wishing to witness a Sanskrit drama cannot walk into the theatre casually, he must be first qualified enough. It is but right because only when he is so thoroughly keen and serious can he appreciate all that is enacted before him on the boards. He has to be capable of an excellent judgment. The above detailed qualifications seem to serve as a basis for the enumeration of qualities of a spectator as found, for instance, in the Bh~vaprak~ga (BP., VIII, lines, 10-15, p. 226), or the ~,di-Bharata as quoted by R~ghavabhat.ta (on Abhijfi~na, p. 9), and V~sudeva (on Karpfiramafijari p. 2) who attributes the passage from the Adibharata (according to Rgghavabhat..ta) to Bharata himself, g~rad~tanaya takes the spectator to be a specialist (sarvasiddhantavid), and endowed with the qualities mentioned above, though there is one variation in the text to say that the spectator "should feel angry on seeing the angry person on stage (ibid., lines 2-3, p. 228). This same reading has been accepted by Jagaddhara (on M~latim~dhava, p. 5). The text culled from the Adibharata is not to be found in the N~, and defines the Sabhyas "as persons having an eager desire to see the spectacle", though the qualities expected of him are not very different from those mentioned by Bharata, except that more emphasis is laid on the temperamental side of a spectator rather than on his acquisitions in the field of dance, drama or music, which are 19 Accordingto .~dibharata cited by Rftghavabhat~aon Abhijfiftna. 1. p.9 "sabhy~stu vibudhairjfiey~tye did.rk.s~tnvit~janfth.". 20 Samgitaratn~kara (SR) VII. 1344. 21 See Rucipati on AnargharS.ghava1. prose after verse 7. 32 Ng XXVII. 49-54 (GOS) translated by M. M. Ghosh (Calcutta, 1951), p. 519.

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not omitted though. It is remarkable, however, that the text in SR (VII. 1343 ft.) is the same as attributed to ,~dibharata) a That the spectators should be so eminently qualified and so versed in the precepts of the theorists is further corroborated by the description of a sdmdjika in a manuscript from the Government Manuscripts Library, Tirupati, called the Arjun~dimatasara.h (No. R. 3070). It is ascribed to one ~uddhasattva Venkat.~c~rya) a and gives copious details about the occasions and purposes of witnessing a dance-show, later followed by details on the nat.yadala (playhouse), the sdmajikas (spectators?), the sabh@ati (chief guest of the occasion), etc. (AMS I. 1-44). The passage relating to the qualifications of spectators is quoted below (AMS. I. 30-35):

Tatra sdmajikdd duddh~ vinaydnarnrakandhardh, gu.nado.savibhagaj~d n~t.yad~stranirftpan, a.h (~ madyastha.h savadhanagca prasiddhd lokapajita.h, bahuprayogadra.st.drah kan. t.akadrnibandhane(?), samartha gatakaut.ilya.h pak.sapdtavivarjitah, samyagarthaparicchedacaturyagu.nagalina.h, vivadah[nd.h sarasa.h patayo? m.rdubha.sin,a.h, g[tasvarasya vettdro vadyabheda.., k.sama.h, an.gopa.ngadiv(/~anaparipatamanasa.h, pf~jarhd.h parikalpya.h syu.h. . . . . . . . . . . .
In the foregoing more emphasis is laid on the need for impartiality and a sense of discrimination on the part of the spectators, perhaps to avoid bias in their final judgement and approval of a play, and to ensure quality of production. In the description of the qualifications given in the N g and BP, the

28 Sabhyastu vibudhairj~eya ye did.rks.anvitdjanaO/ Madhyasth(t savadhanddca vdgmino nyayavedina.h// Trut.itdtrut,itabhij~a vinaydnamrakandhara.h/ Agarvd rasabhfwaj~astauryatritayakovidd.h// Asadvddani.seddharadcatura matsaracchida.h/ Amandarasanis.yandahrdaya bhft~a.nojjvald.h// Suve.sab bhogino nanabha~avadavigarada~/ Svasvocitasthdnasusthastatpragans@ardya.na.h/ / ~4 The author classifies his work as a Bharata~dstra (Ch. I) and Nat.yagdstra (Ch. II & IV). He "compiled" this treatise from the works of Arjuna and other authorities on dramaturgy. Cf. the colophon: iti ArfSuddhasattvavenkat.acftryasamgrhite arjunadimatasdre bharatagastre/ndt.yadastre. This ms. breaks off in the fifth chapter (adhyaya)
and was transcribed in 1919-1920 from a manuscript at Vizagapatam. It is noteworthy that the qualifications given for Samdjikas in this ms. correspond roughly with those attributed to Adibharata, see note 23 above.

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variant pragnika instead of the accepted prek.saka may seem to create a problem, because in the printed text (GOS III) ~5 and in the commentary by Abhinavagupta, the qualifications seem to be those of a pragnika, an assessor, and not of a spectator. ~ r a d ~ t a n a y a accepts prek.saka which is more reasonable in the light of his argument that an assessor should have all the qualifications necessary for a spectator and a nat.a, an actor (BP VIII line 21, p. 226). ~6 Bharata himself accepts that the above-mentioned qualities "are not known to exist in one single spectator. And because objects of knowledge are so numerous and the span of life is so brief, the inferior common (lit. men) in an assembly which consists of the superior, the middling and the inferior members, cannot be expected to appreciate the performance of the superior ones. Hence an individual to whom a particular dress, profession, speech and an act belong as his own, should be considered fit to appreciate the same. ''27 It is only natural that the reactions of the spectators to the various situations would be divergent according to their own attitude towards, and station in life, their own mental make-up. Though every human being is endowed with similar feelings, yet these are not equally developed in all, some are more susceptible to acts depicting sorrow, others to that depicting joy, some are by nature courageous and others timid, while still others are short-tempered. It is, therefore, recognised by Bharata himself that dispositions of men and women are different, 28 and it is said that "young people are pleased to see (the presentation of) love, the learned a reference to some (religious or philosophical) doctrine, the seekers of money (topics of) wealth, and the passionless (prefer) topics of liberation. Heroic persons are always pleased in the 'Odious' and the 'Terrible' sentiments, the personal combats and battles, and the old people in Puranic legends, and tales of virtue. And (the common) women, children and the uncultured men (mf~rkha) are always delighted with the 'Comic' sentiment and (remarkable) costumes and make-up (nepathya)". 9"9 This fact of varying dispositions among men and women is further confirmed by Bharata's classification ~ GOS Vol. III, the K~vyam~lAEdition of N~ and Abhinava read : ata ardhvam pravaks.yarni pragnikanam tu lak$a.nam, and evamvidhdstu kartawa~ prdgnika dagarftpake; Perhaps on the basis of the KSS Edition of the NS, M. M. Ghosh accepts the reading 'prek~aka' instead, which is also attested in BP. 2~ Nat.apreks.akayoruktagu.nairetairvibhft$itdh. 27 N~. XXVII, 56-57, translated by M. M. Ghosh (Calcutta, 1951), p. 520. 2s N~. XX'VII, 58, ibid. 29 N~. XXVII. 59-61, ibid.

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of some of the states (bhavas) according to the dispositions such as utsgtha (which is uttamaprak.rtika, an elevated disposition), and bhaya (which is nicaprak.rtika, a base disposition), 3~ and so on. It is evident, therefore, that the variety of tastes of spectators was taken into consideration, and the appeal of a play was different according to the quality of the spectator, for Bharata claims that "natya teaches duty to those bent on doing their duty, love to those who are eager for its fulfilment, and it chastises those who are ill-bred or unruly, promotes self-restraint in those who are disciplined, gives courage to cowards, energy to heroic persons, enlightens men of poor intellect and gives wisdom to the learned. It gives diversion to kings, and firmness (of mind) to persons afflicted with sorrow, and (hints of acquiring) money to those who are for earning it, and it brings composure to persons agitated in mind. The drama.., is a mimicry of actions and conducts of people, which is rich in various emotions, and which depicts different situations. This will relate to actions of men good, bad and indifferent, and will give courage, amusement and happiness as well as counsel to them all. ''~1 This variety of purpose of Sanskrit drama is also mentioned by K~lidftsa in his Mglgv. 1.4, where it is said "to provide satisfaction in one (place) to people who may differ a great deal as regards their tastes." Thus equipped, a spectator could appreciate a play according to his capacity and learning. A highly qualified spectator could naturally get the fullest benefit out of it, though everyone had an opportunity to express his appreciation. People were the ultimate authority of gauging the success of the play, which was enunciated to be of two kinds by Bharata, viz. divine and h u m a n ? ~ The former relates to the appreciation by the cultured audience "who generally take interest in deeper and more subtle aspects of a dramatic performance and as such are above ordinary human beings", and the latter relates "to common human beings or average spectators" who "are generally moved by outward and not deep aspects of dramatic performance". ~3 The question of the success of a drama depended not only on the appreciative response o f the audience, but on the judgment o f assessors, 34 who also settled disputes if there were any. 35 An expert in sacrifice, an 30 81 3~ a3 s4 s5 N~. VII. 20, 21, etc. N~. I. 108-112. N~. XXVII. 1-17. M.M. Ghosh, N~. translation, p. 513, fn. 17 & 15. N~. XXVII. 69. N~. XXVII. 64 & BP. VIII. p. 227 - Samutpanne ca sanghar$eprd~nikdste bhavanti

hi.

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actor, a prosodist, a grammarian, a king, an expert in archery, a painter, a courtesan, a musician, and a king's officer could be present as assessors, and as experts in their branches, their judgment was invoked to evaluate the performance of individual actors. Mfilav. II, again comes to our help to clarify the conception of an assessor, where the problem is to find out if Haradatta or Ga.nad~sa is a better teacher of dance, and the parivrajika is made an assessor because of her keen judgment. Although none of the dramaturgical texts proper speaks of the sabhapati or his qualifications, we have it on the authority of AbhinayaDarpan.a (AD), SR and the manuscript from Tirupati (AMS) referred to above, that he was responsible for the performance, which he graced by his presence together with all his entourage. And all these texts agree that he was an impartial, learned, cultured, and experienced observer of plays. Besides his qualities the AD (17 and 18) mentions the advisers of the sabhapati, who are all qualified and experts in different branches of drama. As to the functions of the sabhapati, he was to pronounce on the merit of a performance and distribute rewards to the deserving. It is amazing that the qualities of the sabhapati described in the SR (VII. 1345-1350) are the same as those found in the N~tyasarvasvadipik~ (NSD, foil. 13a) a manuscript from Banaras, and those mentioned in the AMS 36 are not very different from those mentioned in the AD or SR. From the foregoing, and the fact that even in the texts on dramaturgy or in the dramas themselves, it is mentioned that Sanskrit plays should be staged on special occasions, it appears that the Sanskrit drama perhaps never was a light amusement of everyday life. Whether we take into account the descriptions of the palace theatres, or the seating arrangement in which the sabhapati occupied an eminent position, or the qualities of assessors or of the king's advisers and their expertise, or the qualifications of the spectators, it is obvious that Sanskrit drama was intended to be a drama of the ~lite, written by master-artists, played on special occasions by finished actors, and enjoyed by qualified persons. It was a refined product religiously presented as an offering before a discriminating audience.

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AMS. I, 35. "Sabhapatib gucirvagmi ga(lhavamgah sthiro yuva, garagca dharmaniratah tejasvi danalolupah, priyamvadab satyagflo devabrahma.nasevaka.h, dayaluO ~astracaks.u~ca vam~avadajana.hprabhu.h, jitendriyo jitakrodhah sarasaravivekavan, vidvatsangrahagflagca kfrtirndn nayakottamaO.