MAC Sublayer Channel Allocation Protocols

Switched Networks
Chapter 3 Medium Access Control Sublayer
Dr.-Ing. Torben Weis

University Duisburg-Essen
Channel Allocation Problem (1)
Multiple stations access one channel Two different approaches What do we expect?
Static Simple Dynamic Efficient
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How to avoid collisions?
Static Channel Allocation Dynamic Channel Allocation
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Example:
Human protocols:

Cocktail party many people gather in a large room Broadcast medium = air Give everyone a chance to speak Dont speak until you are spoken to Dont monopolize the conversation Raise your hand if you have a question Dont interrupt when someone is speaking Dont fall asleep when someone else is talking
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If more than 2 users send at the same time collision All collided packets are lost waste of bandwidth Ideally, the MAC protocol for a broadcast channel with R bit/sec should satisfy:
If only 1 node is sending than the throughput is R When M nodes have data to send than the throughput is R/M Decentralized protocol, i.e. no master Simple & inexpensive to implement
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Protocol Layer
Layer Layer55 Layer Layer44 Layer Layer33 Layer Layer22 Layer Layer11
Network Layer Data Link Layer Physical Layer Application Layer Transport Layer
Layer Layer55 Layer Layer44

Network Layer Data Link Layer Physical Layer
Layer Layer33 Layer Layer22 Layer Layer11
Data Link Layer puts frames on the wire What happens if multiple stations want to put frames on the medium (wire) at the same time? => Medium Access Control (MAC) is required
Medium Access Control Sublayer

Layer Layer55 Layer Layer44 Layer Layer33 Layer Layer22 MAC MAC Layer Layer11
Physical Layer Network Layer Data Link Layer Application Layer Transport Layer
Layer Layer55 Layer Layer44

Network Layer Data Link Layer
Layer Layer33 Layer Layer22 MAC MAC Layer Layer11
Layer Layer33 Layer Layer22 MAC MAC Layer Layer11
Layer Layer33 Layer Layer22 MAC MAC
Physical Layer
Layer Layer11
MAC is not part of the OSI Model MAC is a sublayer of the Data Link Layer
Static Channel Allocation

Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM) Time Division Multiplexing (TDM)
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Frequency Division Multiplexing (1)

Uses static allocation Channel has a bandwidth of H n stations are connected to the cable Idea
Result
Divide the bandwidth in H/n frequency bands Assign one band to one station No collisions possible Delay increased by factor n
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Frequency Division Multiplexing (2)
(a) The original bandwidths (b) The bandwidths raised in frequency (b) The multiplexed channel
Time Division Multiplexing (1)

Uses static allocation Channel transfers B bit/sec n stations are connected to the cable Idea
Allocate n time slots of length t Round robin Each station transfers B*t bits per slot No collisions possible Delay increased by factor n
Result
Time Division Multiplexing (2)
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Dynamic Channel Allocation (1)

Station Model

n independent stations Each station wants to send frames is the constant arrival rate Probability of sending a frame in time t is t
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Single Channel Assumption

All stations connected to the same channel All stations are equivalent Every station can send/receive Optional
Priorities can be assigned to stations
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Collision Assumption
Two stations sending at overlapping time intervals collision the transmitted data is garbled After a collision, data must be sent again Stations can detect collisions No other errors, only collisions
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Continuous Time Slotted Time
Time is not slotted Station can attempt to send any time Time is slotted (divided in discrete intervals) Frame transmission starts at the beginning of a slot
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Carrier Sense
No Carrier Sense
Channels are either busy or idle Station can sense whether the channel is busy Before sending, the station checks the channel Station cannot sense the channel Stations just transmit After sending the station knows whether it was successful or not Problem: A transmission has been destroyed
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Station Model Single Channel Assumption Collision Assumption (a) Continuous Time (b) Slotted Time (a) Carrier Sense (b) No Carrier Sense
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Multiple Access Protocols

ALOHA Carrier Sense Multiple Access Protocols Collision-Free Protocols Limited-Contention Protocols Next week
Wavelength Division Multiple Access Protocols Wireless LAN Protocols
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ALOHA (1)
Norm Abramson at the Univ. of Hawaii mountainous islands land network difficult to install
ACK ACK
ACK ACK
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ALOHA (2)
M nodes can create new frames at any time The node immediately transmits its frame completely on a shared frequency Base station acknowledges packages on a dedicated frequency If the frame collides No ACK is received Retransmission with probability p avoids efficiency to become 0
(Different in slotted ALOHA)
Pure ALOHA
In pure ALOHA, frames are transmitted at completely arbitrary times.

Pure ALOHA (2)
Vulnerable period for the shaded frame = 2t.

Slotted ALOHA
Idea
Result
Create time slots of length t Transmission only at beginning of each time slot Vulnerability reduced from 2t to t We doubled the throughput How does everybody agree on time slots?
Problem
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Pure and Slotted ALOHA
Throughput versus offered traffic for ALOHA systems

Evaluating Aloha
Assumption: Channel can transmit R bit/sec Checklist: If only 1 node is sending than the throughput is R - When M nodes have data to send than the throughput is R/M Decentralized protocol Simple & inexpensive to implement
Carrier Sense Multiple Access (1)

CSMA = Carrier Sense Multiple Access Invented to minimize collisions and increase the performance A station now follows the activity of other stations Simple rules for polite human conversation
Carrier Sense Listen before speaking If someone else begins talking at the same time as you, stop talking
Carrier Sense Multiple Access (2)

If everyone is sensing the medium, how can collisions still occur?
channel propagation delay
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1-persistent CSMA
The protocol

It is called 1-persistent because the station transmits with a probability of 1 whenever it finds the channel idle.
Listen before transmitting If channel busy, wait until is channel idle If channel idle, transmit If collision occurs, wait a random amount of time and start all over again
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Nonpersistent CSMA
The protocol
What is special?
Listen before transmitting If busy, wait a random amount of time and sense the channel again If idle, transmit a packet immediately If collision occurs, wait a random amount of time and start all over again The station does not sense all the time less greedy than 1-persistent CSMA
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p-persistent CSMA
Applies to slotted channels The protocol
Listen before transmitting If channel busy, wait until is channel idle If channel idle Transmit with probability p Wait for next slot with probability q=1-p If collision occurs, repeat the above procedure
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Persistent and Nonpersistent CSMA
Comparison of the channel utilization versus load for various random access protocols
Collision Detection (1)

1. Waiting for an acknowledge (ACK)
2. Sending and receiving
ACK is sent after the frame has been transmitted Frames with collisions are transmitted completely Waiting for ACK wastes time and bandwidth Check, whether you receive what you have sent Collisions can be detected early This is called Collision Detection or just CD
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Collision Detection (2)

When is a collision detected ? Station A sends at time t0 Signal needs to the most distant station X At t0+- station X sends, too
X sensed that the channel is idle
The signal of X needs to station A Result: A must wait 2- before it can detect a collision Problem: Maximum value of depends on the maximum distance between stations
CSMA with Collision Detection
Senders can detect collisions while sending Collision Detection
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Collision-Free Protocols (1)
The basic bit-map protocol
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The bitmap protocol is a reservation protocol Overhead calculation for the reservation
Every station (N in total) wants to send a frame Overhead = 1 contention slot per N frames = 1 bit
Only one station wants to send a frame Overhead = 1 contention slot for 1 frame = N bits
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The binary countdown protocol A dash indicates silence


Binary countdown is a reservation protocol, too Overhead calculation for the reservation
N stations in total At least one wants to send Contention slot has length log2 N
Optimization
Many frames carry the sender address Efficiency can become 100%

Binary countdown uses priorities High addresses always win Low addresses can starve to death Possible fix
Address numbers circulate After sending a frame, address numbers are shifted The sending station gets a low address
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Limited-Contention Protocols
Acquisition probability for a symmetric contention channel

Adaptive Tree Walk Protocol (1)
The tree for eight stations

Adaptive Tree Walk Protocol (2)

Idea
Best of both worlds
Limit the number of participants in the contention First, everybody may try to send Collision halve the participants Low delay when there are few collisions Low delay when many station bid for the channel
Almost as good as reservation protocols As good as slotted ALOHA
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Wavelength Division Multiple Access Protocols
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Manchester Code (1)

How to represent 0 and 1 on the wire? Idea 1
Idea 2
1 = +5 Volt, 0 = 0 Volt Problem: How to differentiate 00000000 from an idle sender ? 1 = +5 Volt, 0 = -5 Volt Problem: We cannot be sure that all receivers sample the signal at the same rate (clock drift)
We need a self-clocking encoding

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Manchester Code (2)

Encode 1 bit as 2 bits
This is called Manchester Code

It is used by Ethernet (we will come to that later)
1 = 10 0 = 01 Good news: the signal oscillates in the middle of every bit Bad news: We waste half of the bandwidth
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Manchester Code (3)
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Differential Manchester Code

Encode 1 bit as 2 bits The encoding of bit n depends on the encoding of bit n-1
If n = 1 If n = 0
n-1 encoded as 10 ? -> n = 01 n-1 encoded as 01 ? -> n = 10 n-1 encoded as 10 ? -> n = 10 n-1 encoded as 01 ? -> n = 01
Advantage: Better noise immunity Disadvantage: Requires more complex equipment

IEEE Standard 802 for LANs

Ethernet: Token Bus: Token Ring: Wireless: IEEE IEEE IEEE IEEE 802.3 802.4 802.5 802.11
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IEEE 802.5 Token Ring
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Token Ring Physical Length (1)

A 3 byte token circulates on the ring Sender must not receive its own token data before it sends the last token bit How many bits fit on the ring?
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Token Ring Physical Length (2)

Each station buffers 1 bit
The cable carries some bits
Problem: station can be taken off the net
Additional buffers are required

Data rate of R Mbit/sec A bit is emitted every 1/R sec Signal propagation speed 200 m/sec Each bit occupies 200/R m Example: R=1 Mbit/sec, length = 1000m Each bit occupies 200m 5 bits on the ring cable
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Token Passing (1)
TK
PKT
T PK
T PK
TK
The Token rotates around the ring
Station A captures the Token and converts it to a Packet
Station A transmits the packet
Staton A waits for the Packet
Station A releases the Token
Release After Reception (RAR)
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Token Passing (2)
TK
T PK
T PK
TK
The Token rotates around the ring
Station A captures the Token and converts it to a Packet
Station A transmits the Packet and immediately releases the Token
Release After Transmission (RAT)
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Token Passing (3)

The ring can contain:
The token must fit on the ring The size of a data frame is not limited
A token A data frame (or both in release after transmission)
A data frame is not entirely on the ring The sender can receive its own frame while still sending Can be used for error detection
Token Passing (4)

Is starvation possible?
Stations s1, s2, sn Station si fetches the token and transmits data Then, si issues a new token si+1 can get the token Full load round robin Token ring is fair
as long as only one priority is used
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i.e. a station wants to send but never gets the token ? Answer: No
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Token Ring Wiring

Wire center
bypass relays
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Token Ring Multistation Access Unit (MSAU)
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Token Ring - Active Monitor

Some station must
This station is the active monitor (AM) All other stations are standby monitors (SM) The active monitor is elected
The station with the largest MAC wins
inject the token detect circulating frames send a continuous signal (e.g. Differential Manchester encoded 0) to synchronize all stations
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Joining a Token Ring

1. (Lobe Check) - Performs a lobe media check to see whether frames are received without error. 2. (Physical Insertion) - A station then sends a 5 volt signal to the MSAU to open the relay. 3. (Address Verification) - A station then sends a message to is own MAC If the Copied flag is set -> The MAC is already used 4. (Participation in Ring Poll) - The station must participate in the periodic (every 7 seconds) ring poll process. 5. (Request Initialization) - Finally a station sends out a special request to a parameter server to obtain configuration information.
Token Structure (1)

SD AC ED 1 1 1 SD AC ED = = = Starting Delimiter Access Control Ending Delimiter
SD JK0JK000 AC PPPTMrrr
J - Phase Violation J K - Phase Violation K 0 - Binary Zero PPP - Priority Bits T - Token Bit M - Monitor Bit rrr - Reservation Bit J - Phase Violation J K - Phase Violation K 1 - Binary One I - Intermediate Bit E - Error Bit
ED JK1JK1IE
Token Structure (2)

SD AC ED 1 1 1 SD AC ED = = = Starting Delimiter Access Control Ending Delimiter
SD JK0JK000
J - Phase Violation J K - Phase Violation K 0 - Binary Zero
The manchester code violation enables a receiver to detect the start of a token Violation is achieved by not switching in the middle of a bit J K assures that the signal is still oscillating
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Data Frame Structure

SD AC FC DA SA 1 SD AC FC DA SA ED FS = = = = = = = 1 1 6 6 DATA n ED FS 1 1
Starting Delimiter Access Control Frame Control Destination Address Source Address Ending Delimiter Frame Status
FC FFZZZZZZ FS AC00AC00
FF - Frame Type ZZZZZZ - Control Bits A = Address Recognized C = Frame Copied

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Token Ring Priority
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IEEE Standard 802 for LANs

Ethernet: Token Bus: Token Ring: Wireless: IEEE IEEE IEEE IEEE 802.3 802.4 802.5 802.11
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IEEE 802.4 Token Bus
Physical: Bus (solid line) Logical: Ring (dashed line)

Why Token Bus ?

Combines:
Different application domains

Pushed by General Motors Real-time important
Cabling of Ethernet (single wire) Determinism of Token Ring
Token Ring / Ethernet: Office Token Bus: Industrial automation
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Token Bus Frame Format
Comparable to IEEE 802.5 format, but unfortunately different
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Token Bus - Messages
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Token Bus MAC Protocol (1)

Initializing a ring
90
Station 90 wants to join
Station 90 detects that there is no traffic Station 90 sends claim_token(90) The station with the highest MAC wins
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Joining a ring
90 80 70 60
Station 80 wants to join
90 periodically sends solicit_successor(90,70) Station between 90 and 70 may respond 80 sends set_successor(90,80)
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Joining a ring, part 2
90 80 70 60
Stations 80 and 70 want to join

90 periodically sends solicit_successor(90,60) Station between 90 and 60 may respond 80 and 70 send set_successor(90,xx) collision 90 sends resolve_contention The winner sends set_successor(90,xx)

Contention Resolution
Station A two random bits Station B
address bits
Use the address bits, two bits at a time, starting from the most significant bit (MSB) To avoid that larger number nodes always win:
Add two random bits before the MSB Regenerated random bits periodically
L L
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Leaving a ring
90 80 70 60
Stations 80 wants to leave
80 waits for the token 80 sends set_successor(90,70) 90 has new successor 70 has new predecessor
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Station failure
90 80 70 60
Station 80 fails
90 sends token. If 80 does not reply, 90 sends again Still no response 90 sends who_follows(90,80) 70 sends set_successor(90,70)
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Station failure, part 2
90 80 70 60
Stations 80 and 70 fail

90 sends token. If 80 does not reply, 90 sends again No response 90 sends who_follows(90,80) No response 90 sends solicit_successor_2(90) Any alive station sends set_successor(90,xx)
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MAC Sublayer Channel Allocation Protocols

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Switched Networks

Chapter 3 Medium Access Control Sublayer

Dr.-Ing. Torben Weis

Channel Allocation Problem (1)

How to avoid collisions?

Static Channel Allocation Dynamic Channel Allocation

Channel Allocation Problem (2)

Channel Allocation Problem (3)

Layer Layer55 Layer Layer44

Layer Layer33 Layer Layer22 Layer Layer11

Layer Layer33 Layer Layer22 Layer Layer11

Layer Layer33 Layer Layer22 Layer Layer11

Medium Access Control Sublayer

Layer Layer55 Layer Layer44

Layer Layer33 Layer Layer22 MAC MAC Layer Layer11

Layer Layer33 Layer Layer22 MAC MAC Layer Layer11

Layer Layer33 Layer Layer22 MAC MAC

Static Channel Allocation

Frequency Division Multiplexing (1)

Frequency Division Multiplexing (2)

Time Division Multiplexing (1)

Time Division Multiplexing (2)

Dynamic Channel Allocation (1)

Dynamic Channel Allocation (2)

Dynamic Channel Allocation (3)

Dynamic Channel Allocation (4)

Dynamic Channel Allocation (5)

Dynamic Channel Allocation (6)

Multiple Access Protocols

Wavelength Division Multiple Access Protocols Wireless LAN Protocols

(Different in slotted ALOHA)

In pure ALOHA, frames are transmitted at completely arbitrary times.

Pure ALOHA (2)

Vulnerable period for the shaded frame = 2t.

Pure and Slotted ALOHA

Throughput versus offered traffic for ALOHA systems

Carrier Sense Multiple Access (1)

Carrier Sense Multiple Access (2)

channel propagation delay

Persistent and Nonpersistent CSMA

Collision Detection (1)

2. Sending and receiving

Collision Detection (2)

CSMA with Collision Detection

Senders can detect collisions while sending Collision Detection

Collision-Free Protocols (1)

The basic bit-map protocol

Collision-Free Protocols (2)

Collision-Free Protocols (3)

The binary countdown protocol A dash indicates silence

Collision-Free Protocols (4)

Collision-Free Protocols (5)

Acquisition probability for a symmetric contention channel

Adaptive Tree Walk Protocol (1)

The tree for eight stations

Adaptive Tree Walk Protocol (2)

Best of both worlds

Wavelength Division Multiple Access Protocols

Manchester Code (1)

We need a self-clocking encoding

Manchester Code (2)

This is called Manchester Code

Manchester Code (3)