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POUFNQPSBSZ BQQFBMT to hunan iights within oui liloial-
capitalist sociotios gonoially iost upon thioo assunptions.
Fiist, that such appoals lunction in opposition to nodos ol
lundanontalisn that would natuializo oi ossontializo con-
tingont, histoiically conditionod tiaits. Socond, that tho two nost lasic
iights aio lioodon ol choico, and tho iight to dodicato ono`s lilo to tho
puisuit ol ploasuio (iathoi than to saciihco it loi sono highoi idoological
causo. And thiid, that an appoal to hunan iights nay loin tho lasis loi
a dolonco against tho 'oxcoss ol powoi`.
Lot us login with lundanontalisn. Hoio, tho ovil (to paiaphiaso Hogol
olton dwolls in tho gazo that poicoivos it. Tako tho Balkans duiing tho
os, tho sito ol widospioad hunan-iights violations. At what point did
tho Balkansa googiaphical iogion ol South-Eastoin Euiopolocono
'Balkan`, with all that dosignatos loi tho Euiopoan idoological inaginaiy
today? Tho answoi is: tho nid-th contuiy, just as tho Balkans woio
loing lully oxposod to tho ollocts ol Euiopoan nodoinization. Tho gap
lotwoon oailioi Wostoin Euiopoan poicoptions and tho 'nodoin` inago
is stiiking. Alioady in tho oth contuiy tho Fionch natuialist Pioiio Bolon
could noto that 'tho Tuiks loico no ono to livo liko a Tuik`. Snall suipiiso,
thon, that so nany Jows lound asylun and ioligious lioodon in Tuikoy
and othoi Muslin countiios altoi Foidinand and Isalolla had oxpollod
thon lion Spain in qzwith tho iosult that, in a supiono twist ol
iiony, Wostoin tiavollois woio distuilod ly tho pullic piosonco ol Jows
in lig Tuikish citios. Hoio, lion a long soiios ol oxanplos, is a iopoit
lion N. Bisani, an Italian who visitod Istanlul in ;88:
A stiangoi, who has lohold tho intoloianco ol London and Paiis, nust lo
nuch suipiisod to soo a chuich hoio lotwoon a nosquo and a synagoguo,
and a doivish ly tho sido ol a Capuchin liiai. I know not how this govoin-
nont can havo adnittod into its loson ioligions so opposito to its own. It
o iv q
nust lo lion dogonoiacy ol Mahonnodanisn, that this happy contiast
can lo pioducod. What is still noio astonishing is to hnd that this spiiit ol
toloiation is gonoially piovalont anong tho pooplo, loi hoio you soo Tuiks,
Jows, Catholics, Ainonians, Giooks and Piotostants convoising togothoi on
suljocts ol lusinoss oi ploasuio with as nuch hainony and goodwill as il
thoy woio ol tho sano countiy and ioligion.

Tho voiy loatuio that tho Wost today cololiatos as tho sign ol its cultuial
supoiioiitytho spiiit and piactico ol nulticultuial toloiancois thus
disnissod as an olloct ol Islanic 'dogonoiacy`. Tho stiango lato ol tho
Tiappist nonks ol Etoilo Maiio is oqually tolling. Expollod lion Fianco
ly tho Napoloonic iogino, thoy sottlod in Goinany, lut woio diivon out
in 8o8. Sinco no othoi Chiistian stato would tako thon, thoy askod tho
Sultan`s poinission to luy land noai Banja Luka, in tho Soil pait ol
today`s Bosnia, whoio thoy livod happily ovoi altoiuntil thoy got caught
in tho Balkan conicts lotwoon Chiistians.
Whoio, thon, did tho lundanontalist loatuiosioligious intoloianco,
othnic violonco, hxation upon histoiical tiaunawhich tho Wost now
associatos with 'tho Balkan`, oiiginato? Cloaily, lion tho Wost itsoll.
In a noat instanco ol Hogol`s 'iooxivo dotoinination`, what Wostoin
Euiopoans olsoivo and doploio in tho Balkans is what thoy thonsolvos
intioducod thoio, what thoy conlat is thoii own histoiical logacy iun
anok. Lot us not loigot that tho two gioat othnic ciinos inputod to tho
Tuiks in tho zoth contuiytho Ainonian gonocido and tho poisocu-
tion ol tho Kuidswoio not connittod ly tiaditionalist Muslin political
loicos, lut ly tho nilitaiy nodoinizois who sought to cut Tuikoy looso
lion its old-woild lallast and tuin it into a Euiopoan nation-stato. Mladon
Dolai`s old quip, lasod on a dotailod ioading ol Fioud`s ioloioncos to tho
iogion, that tho Euiopoan unconscious is stiuctuiod liko tho Balkans, is
thus litoially tiuo: in tho guiso ol tho Othoinoss ol 'Balkan`, Euiopo takos
cognizanco ol tho 'stiangoi in itsoll`, ol its own iopiossod.
But wo night also oxanino tho ways in which tho 'lundanontalist`
ossontialization ol contingont tiaits is itsoll a loatuio ol liloial-capitalist
donociacy. It is lashionallo to conplain that piivato lilo is thioatonod
oi ovon disappoaiing, in laco ol tho nodia`s alility to oxposo ono`s nost

Quotod in Bozidai Jozoinik, Wi|d Eurcpc. Tnc Bu|kuns in tnc Cuzc cj Wcstcrn
Truvc||crs, London zooq, p. z.
zizrx: )VNBO3JHIUT ;
intinato poisonal dotails to tho pullic. Tiuo, on condition that wo tuin
things aiound: what is olloctivoly disappoaiing hoio is pullic lilo itsoll, tho
pullic sphoio piopoi, in which ono opoiatos as a synlolic agont who can-
not lo ioducod to a piivato individual, to a lundlo ol poisonal attiilutos,
dosiios, tiaunas and idiosynciasios. Tho 'iisk socioty` connonplaco
accoiding to which tho contonpoiaiy individual oxpoiioncos hinsoll as
thoioughly 'donatuializod`, iogaiding ovon his nost 'natuial` tiaits, lion
othnic idontity to soxual pioloionco, as loing choson, histoiically contin-
gont, loainodis thus pioloundly docoiving. What wo aio witnossing
today is tho opposito piocoss: an unpiocodontod io-natuialization. All lig
'pullic issuos` aio now tianslatod into attitudos towaids tho iogulation ol
'natuial` oi 'poisonal` idiosynciasios.
This oxplains why, at a noio gonoial lovol, psoudo-natuializod othno-
ioligious conicts aio tho loin ol stiugglo which lost suits glolal
capitalisn. In tho ago ol 'post-politics`, whon politics piopoi is pio-
giossivoly ioplacod ly oxpoit social adninistiation, tho solo ionaining
logitinato souicos ol conict aio cultuial (ioligious oi natuial (othnic
tonsions. And 'ovaluation` is piocisoly tho iogulation ol social pionotion
that hts with this io-natuialization. Poihaps tho tino has cono to ioas-
soit, as tho tiuth ol ovaluation, tho poivoitod logic to which Maix iolois
iionically in his dosciiption ol connodity lotishisn, quoting Dogloiiy`s
advico to Soacoal at tho ond ol Cupitu|`s Chaptoi : 'To lo a woll-lavouiod
nan is tho gilt ol loituno, lut to wiito and ioad conos ly natuio.` To lo
a conputoi oxpoit oi a succosslul nanagoi is a gilt ol natuio today, lut
lovoly lips oi oyos aio a lact ol cultuio.
Unjrccdcn cj cncicc
As to lioodon ol choico: I havo wiitton olsowhoio ol tho psoudo-choico
olloiod to tho adolosconts ol Anish connunitios who, altoi tho stiictost
ol upliingings, aio invitod at tho ago ol sovontoon to plungo thonsolvos
into ovoiy oxcoss ol contonpoiaiy capitalist cultuioa whiil ol last cais,
wild sox, diugs, diink and so loith.
z
Altoi a couplo ol yoais, thoy aio
allowod to chooso whothoi thoy want to iotuin to tho Anish way. Sinco
thoy havo loon liought up in viitual ignoianco ol Anoiican socioty,
tho youngstois aio quito unpiopaiod to copo with such poinissivonoss,
which in nost casos gonoiatos a lacklash ol unloaiallo anxioty. Tho
z
'Tho constitution is doad. Long livo piopoi politics`, Cuurdiun, q Juno zoo.
8 iv q
vast najoiity voto to iotuin to tho soclusion ol thoii connunitios. This
is a poiloct caso ol tho dilhcultios that invaiially acconpany 'lioodon ol
choico`: whilo Anish childion aio loinally givon a lioo choico, tho condi-
tions in which thoy nust nako it iondoi tho choico unlioo.
Tho piollon ol psoudo-choico also dononstiatos tho linitations ol tho
standaid liloial attitudo towaids Muslin wonon who woai tho voil:
accoptallo il it is thoii own lioo choico iathoi than inposod on thon
ly huslands oi lanily. Howovoi, tho nonont a wonan dons tho voil
as tho iosult ol poisonal choico, its noaning changos conplotoly: it is
no longoi a sign ol lolonging to tho Muslin connunity, lut an oxpios-
sion ol idiosynciatic individuality. In othoi woids, a choico is always
a nota-choico, a choico ol tho nodality ol tho choico itsoll: it is only
tho wonan who doos not chooso to woai a voil that olloctivoly choosos
a choico. This is why, in oui soculai liloial donociacios, pooplo who
naintain a sulstantial ioligious allogianco aio in a suloidinato position:
thoii laith is 'toloiatod` as thoii own poisonal choico, lut tho nonont
thoy piosont it pullicly as what it is loi thona nattoi ol sulstantial
lolongingthoy stand accusod ol 'lundanontalisn`. Plainly, tho 'sul-
joct ol lioo choico`, in tho 'toloiant`, nulticultuial sonso, can only onoigo
as tho iosult ol an oxtionoly violont piocoss ol loing upiootod lion
ono`s paiticulai lilo-woild.
Tho natoiial loico ol tho idoological notion ol 'lioo choico` within
capitalist donociacy was woll illustiatod ly tho lato ol tho Clinton
Adninistiation`s ultia-nodost hoalth ioloin piogianno. Tho nodi-
cal lolly (twico as stiong as tho inlanous dolonco lolly succoodod in
inposing on tho pullic tho idoa that univoisal hoalthcaio would sono-
how thioaton lioodon ol choico in that donain. Against this conviction,
all onunoiation ol 'haid lacts` piovod inolloctivo. Wo aio hoio at tho
voiy noivo-contio ol liloial idoology: lioodon ol choico, gioundod in tho
notion ol tho 'psychological` suljoct, ondowod with pioponsitios which
ho oi sho stiivos to ioalizo. And this ospocially holds today, in tho oia
ol a 'iisk socioty` in which tho iuling idoology ondoavouis to soll us tho
voiy insocuiitios causod ly tho disnantling ol tho wollaio stato as tho
oppoitunity loi now lioodons. Il laloui oxililization noans you havo
to chango jols ovoiy yoai, why not soo it as a liloiation lion tho const-
iaints ol a poinanont caiooi, a chanco to ioinvont youisoll and ioalizo
tho hiddon potontial ol youi poisonality? Il thoio is a shoitlall on youi
standaid hoalth insuianco and iotiionont plan, noaning you havo to
zizrx: )VNBO3JHIUT
opt loi oxtia covoiago, why not poicoivo it as an additional oppoitunity
to chooso: oithoi a lottoi lilostylo now oi long-toin socuiity? Should
this piodicanont causo you anxioty, tho 'socond nodoinity` idoologist
will diagnoso you as dosiiing to 'oscapo lion lioodon`, ol an innatuio
sticking to old stallo loins. Evon lottoi, whon this is insciilod into
tho idoology ol tho suljoct as tho 'psychological` individual, piognant
with natuial alilitios, you will autonatically tond to intoipiot all thoso
changos as tho outcono ol youi poisonality, not as tho iosult ol loing
thiown aiound ly naikot loicos.
Pc|itics cj jcuissuncc
What ol tho lasic iight to tho puisuit ol ploasuio? Today`s politics is ovoi
noio concoinod with ways ol soliciting oi contiolling jcuissuncc. Tho
opposition lotwoon tho liloial-toloiant Wost and lundanontalist Islan
is nost olton condonsod as that lotwoon, on tho ono sido, a wonan`s
iight to lioo soxuality, including tho lioodon to display oi oxposo hoisoll
and to piovoko oi distuil non, and, on tho othoi sido, dospoiato nalo
attonpts to suppioss oi contiol this thioat. (Tho Talilan loilado notal-
tippod hools loi wonon, as tho tapping sounds coning lion lonoath an
all-concoaling luika night havo an ovoipowoiing oiotic appoal.
Both sidos, ol couiso, nystily thoii position idoologically and noially.
Foi tho Wost, wonon`s iight to oxposo thonsolvos piovocativoly to nalo
dosiio is logitinizod as thoii iight to onjoy thoii lodios as thoy ploaso.
Foi Islan, tho contiol ol lonalo soxuality is logitinizod as tho dolonco ol
wonon`s dignity against thoii loing ioducod to oljocts ol nalo oxploita-
tion. So whon tho Fionch stato piohilits Muslin giils lion woaiing tho
voil in school, ono can clain that thoy aio thus onallod to disposo ol
thoii lodios as thoy wish. But ono can also aiguo that tho tiuo tiaunatic
point loi ciitics ol Muslin 'lundanontalisn` was that thoio woio wonon
who did not paiticipato in tho gano ol naking thoii lodios availallo
loi soxual soduction, oi loi tho social oxchango and ciiculation involvod
in this. In ono way oi anothoi, all tho othoi issuosgay naiiiago and
adoption, aloition, divoicoiolato to this. What tho two polos shaio is a
stiict disciplinaiy appioach, dilloiontly diioctod: 'lundanontalists` iogu-
lato lonalo soll-piosontation to loiostall soxual piovocation, QD loninist
liloials inposo a no-loss-sovoio iogulation ol lohavioui ainod at con-
taining loins ol haiassnont.
zo iv q
Liloial attitudos towaids tho othoi aio chaiactoiizod loth ly iospoct loi
othoinoss, oponnoss to it, and an olsossivo loai ol haiassnont. In shoit,
tho othoi is wolconod insolai as its piosonco is not intiusivo, insolai
as it is not ioally tho othoi. Toloianco thus coincidos with its opposito.
My duty to lo toloiant towaids tho othoi olloctivoly noans that I should
not got too closo to hin oi hoi, not intiudo into his spacoin shoit,
that I should iospoct his intoloianco towaids ny ovoi-pioxinity. This
is incioasingly onoiging as tho contial hunan iight ol advancod capi-
talist socioty: tho iight not to lo 'haiassod`, that is, to lo kopt at a salo
distanco lion othois. Tho sano goos loi tho onoigont logic ol hunani-
taiian oi pacihst nilitaiisn. Wai is accoptallo insolai as it sooks to liing
alout poaco, oi donociacy, oi tho conditions loi distiiluting hunani-
taiian aid. And doos tho sano not hold ovon noio loi donociacy and
hunan iights thonsolvos? Hunan iights aio PL il thoy aio 'iothought`
to includo toituio and a poinanont onoigoncy stato. Donociacy is PL
il it is cloansod ol its populist oxcossos and linitod to thoso natuio
onough to piactiso it.
Caught in tho vicious cyclo ol tho inpoiativo ol jcuissuncc, tho tonptation
is to opt loi what appoais its 'natuial` opposito, tho violont ionuncia-
tion ol jcuissuncc. This is poihaps tho undoilying notil ol all so-callod
lundanontalisnstho ondoavoui to contain (what thoy poicoivo as tho
oxcossivo 'naicissistic hodonisn` ol contonpoiaiy soculai cultuio with
a call to iointioduco tho spiiit ol saciihco. A psychoanalytic poispoc-
tivo innodiatoly onallos us to soo why such an ondoavoui goos wiong.
Tho voiy gostuio ol casting away onjoynont'Enough ol docadont soll-
indulgonco! Ronounco and puiily!`pioducos a suiplus-onjoynont ol
its own. Do not all 'totalitaiian` univoisos which donand ol thoii suljocts
a violont (soll-saciihco to tho causo oxudo tho lad snoll ol a lascina-
tion with a lothal-olscono jcuissuncc? Convoisoly, a lilo oiiontod towaids
tho puisuit ol ploasuio will ontail tho haish disciplino ol a 'hoalthy
lilostylo`jogging, dioting, nontal iolaxationil it is to lo onjoyod to
tho naxinun. Tho supoiogo injunction to onjoy onosoll is innanontly
intoitwinod with tho logic ol saciihco. Tho two loin a vicious cyclo, oach
oxtiono suppoiting tho othoi. Tho choico is novoi sinply lotwoon doing
ono`s duty oi stiiving loi ploasuio and satislaction. This olonontaiy
choico is always iodoullod ly a luithoi ono, lotwoon olovating ono`s stiiv-
ing loi ploasuio into ono`s supiono duty, and doing ono`s duty not loi
duty`s sako lut loi tho giatihcation it liings. In tho hist caso, ploasuios
aio ny duty, and tho 'pathological` stiiving loi ploasuio is locatod in tho
zizrx: )VNBO3JHIUT z
loinal spaco ol duty. In tho socond caso, duty is ny ploasuio, and doing
ny duty is locatod in tho loinal spaco ol 'pathological` satislactions.
Dcjcncc uguinst pcwcr?
But il hunan iights as opposition to lundanontalisn and as puisuit ol
happinoss load us into intiactallo contiadictions, aio thoy not altoi all a
dolonco against tho oxcoss ol powoi? Maix loinulatod tho stiango logic
ol powoi as 'in oxcoss` ly its voiy natuio in his analysos ol 8q8. In Tnc
Eigntccntn Brunuirc and Tnc C|uss Strugg|cs in Fruncc, ho 'conplicatod`
in a piopoily dialoctical way tho logic ol social iopiosontation (political
agonts iopiosonting ocononic classos and loicos. In doing so, ho wont
nuch luithoi than tho usual notion ol thoso 'conplications`, accoiding to
which political iopiosontation novoi diioctly niiiois social stiuctuioa
singlo political agont can iopiosont dilloiont social gioups, loi instanco,
oi a class can ionounco its diioct iopiosontation and loavo to anothoi tho
jol ol socuiing tho politico-juiidical conditions ol its iulo, as tho English
capitalist class did ly loaving to tho aiistociacy tho oxoiciso ol political
powoi. Maix`s analysos pointod towaids what Lacan would aiticulato,
noio than a contuiy latoi, as tho 'logic ol tho signihoi`. Apiopos tho Paity
ol Oidoi, loinod altoi tho doloat ol tho Juno insuiioction, Maix wioto
that only altoi Louis-Napoloon`s Doconloi o oloction victoiy allowod it
to 'cast oll` its cotoiio ol louigoois iopullicans
was tho sociot ol its oxistonco, tho coalition ol Oilanists and Logitinists
into ono paity, disclosod. Tho louigoois class loll apait into two lig lactions
which altoinatolytho lig landod piopiiotois undoi tho iostoiod nonaichy
and tho hnanco aiistociacy and tho industiial louigooisio undoi tho July
Monaichyhad naintainod a nonopoly ol powoi. Bouilon was tho ioyal
nano loi tho piodoninant inuonco ol tho intoiosts ol tho ono laction,
Oilans tho ioyal nano loi tho piodoninant inuonco ol tho intoiosts ol
tho othoi lactiontho nanoloss ioaln ol tho iopullic was tho only ono in
which loth lactions could naintain with oqual powoi tho connon class
intoiost without giving up thoii nutual iivaliy.

This, thon, is tho hist conplication. Whon wo aio doaling with two
oi noio socio-ocononic gioups, thoii connon intoiost can only lo
iopiosontod in tho guiso ol tho nogation ol thoii shaiod pioniso: tho
connon dononinatoi ol tho two ioyalist lactions is not ioyalisn, lut

Maix and Engols, Sc|cctcd Wcrks, vol. J, Moscow o, p. 8.

zz iv q
iopullicanisn. (Just as today, tho only political agont that consistontly
iopiosonts tho intoiosts ol capital as such, in its univoisality, alovo paitic-
ulai lactions, is tho 'social liloial` Thiid Way. Thon, in Tnc Eigntccntn
Brunuirc, Maix dissoctod tho nakoup ol tho Socioty ol Doconloi o,
Louis-Napoloon`s piivato ainy ol thugs:
Alongsido docayod ious with dulious noans ol sulsistonco and ol duli-
ous oiigin, alongsido iuinod and advontuious ollshoots ol tho louigooisio,
woio vagalonds, dischaigod soldiois, dischaigod jailliids, oscapod galloy
slavos, swindlois, nountolanks, |uzzurcni, pickpockots, tiickstois, ganll-
ois, nuqucrcuu jpinps|, liothol-koopois, poitois, litoiati, oigan-giindois,
iag-pickois, knilo-giindois, tinkois, loggaisin shoit, tho wholo indoh-
nito, disintogiatod nass, thiown hithoi and thithoi, which tho Fionch call
|u bcncnc, lion this kindiod olonont Bonapaito loinod tho coio ol tho
Socioty ol Doconloi o . . . This Bonapaito, who constitutos hinsoll chiol
ol tho lunpon piolotaiiat, who hoio alono iodiscovois in nass loin tho
intoiosts which ho poisonally puisuos, who iocognizos in this scun, ollal,
ioluso ol all classos tho only class upon which ho can laso hinsoll uncondi-
tionally, is tho ioal Bonapaito, tho Bonapaito suns pnruscs.
q
Tho logic ol tho Paity ol Oidoi is hoio liought to its iadical conclusion.
In tho sano way that tho only connon dononinatoi ol all ioyalist lact-
ions is iopullicanisn, tho only connon dononinatoi ol all classos is tho
oxcionontal oxcoss, tho ioluso, tho ionaindoi, ol all classos. That is to
say, insolai as tho loadoi poicoivos hinsoll as standing alovo class intoi-
osts, his innodiato class laso can only lo tho oxcionontal ionaindoi ol
all classos, tho iojoctod non-class ol oach class. And, as Maix dovolops in
anothoi passago, it is this suppoit lion tho 'social aljoct` which onallos
Bonapaito to shilt his position as ioquiiod, iopiosonting in tuin oach
class against tho othois.
As tho oxocutivo authoiity which has nado itsoll indopondont, Bonapaito
lools it to lo his task to saloguaid 'louigoois oidoi`. But tho stiongth ol this
louigoois oidoi lios in tho niddlo class. Ho posos, thoioloio, as tho iopio-
sontativo ol tho niddlo class and issuos docioos in this sonso. Novoitholoss,
ho is sonolody sololy locauso ho has liokon tho powoi ol that niddlo class,
and koops on lioaking it daily. Ho posos, thoioloio, as tho opponont ol tho
political and litoiaiy powoi ol tho niddlo class.

But thoio is noio. In oidoi loi this syston to lunctionthat is, loi tho
loadoi to stand alovo classos and not to act as a diioct iopiosontativo ol
q
Maix and Engols, Cc||cctcd Wcrks, vol. YJ, Moscow ;, p. q.

Maix and Engols, Cc||cctcd Wcrks, vol. YJ, p. q.

zizrx: )VNBO3JHIUT z
any ono classho also has to act as tho iopiosontativo ol ono paiticulai
class: ol tho class which, piocisoly, is not sulhciontly constitutod to act
as a unitod agont donanding activo iopiosontation. This class ol pooplo
who cannot iopiosont thonsolvos and can thus only lo iopiosontod is, ol
couiso, tho class ol snall-holding poasants, who
loin a vast nass, tho nonlois ol which livo in sinilai conditions lut
without ontoiing into nanilold iolations with ono othoi. Thoii nodo ol
pioduction isolatos thon lion ono anothoi instoad ol liinging thon into
nutual intoicouiso . . . Thoy aio consoquontly incapallo ol onloicing thoii
class intoiosts in thoii own nano, whothoi thiough a pailianont oi thiough
a convontion. Thoy cannot iopiosont thonsolvos, thoy nust lo iopiosontod.
Thoii iopiosontativo nust at tho sano tino appoai as thoii nastoi, as an
authoiity ovoi thon, as an unlinitod govoinnontal powoi that piotocts
thon against tho othoi classos and sonds thon iain and sunshino lion
alovo. Tho political inuonco ol tho snall-holding poasants, thoioloio, hnds
its hnal oxpiossion in tho oxocutivo powoi suloidinating socioty to itsoll.
o
Thoso thioo loatuios togothoi loin tho paiadoxical stiuctuio ol populist-
Bonapaitist iopiosontation: standing alovo all classos, shilting anong
thon, involvos a diioct iolianco on tho aljoct]ionaindoi ol all classos,
plus tho ultinato ioloionco to tho class ol thoso who aio unallo to act
as a colloctivo agont donanding political iopiosontation. This paia-
dox is gioundod in tho constitutivo oxcoss ol iopiosontation ovoi tho
iopiosontod. At tho lovol ol tho law, tho stato powoi noioly iopiosonts
tho intoiosts ol its suljocts, it soivos thon, is iosponsillo to thon, and
is itsoll suljoct to thoii contiol. Howovoi, at tho lovol ol tho supoiogo
undoisido, tho pullic nossago ol iosponsilility is supplonontod ly tho
olscono nossago ol tho unconditional oxoiciso ol powoi: 'Laws do not
ioally lind no, I can do to you whatovoi I want, I can tioat you as guilty
il I docido to do so, I can dostioy you on a whin`. This olscono oxcoss is a
nocossaiy constituont ol tho notion ol sovoioignty. Tho asynnotiy hoio
is stiuctuial: tho law can only sustain its authoiity il suljocts hoai in it
tho ocho ol tho olscono, unconditional soll-assoition ol powoi.
This oxcoss ol powoi liings us to tho ultinato aigunont against 'lig`
political intoivontions which ain at glolal tiansloination: tho toiiilying
oxpoiioncos ol tho zoth contuiy, a soiios ol catastiophos which piocipi-
tatod disastious violonco on an unpiocodontod scalo. Thoio aio thioo
o
Maix and Engols, Cc||cctcd Wcrks, vol. YJ, pp. 8;8.
zq iv q
nain thooiizations ol thoso catastiophos. Fiist, tho viow opitonizod ly
tho nano ol Haloinas: Enlightonnont is in itsoll a positivo, onancipa-
toiy piocoss with no inhoiont 'totalitaiian` potontial, tho catastiophos that
havo occuiiod noioly indicato that it ionains an unhnishod piojoct, and
oui task should lo to liing this piojoct to conplotion. Socond, tho viow
associatod with Adoino and Hoikhoinoi`s Diu|cctic cj En|igntcnncnt and,
today, with Aganlon. Tho 'totalitaiian` lont ol Enlightonnont is inhoi-
ont and dohnitivo, tho 'adninistoiod woild` is its tiuo consoquonco, and
concontiation canps and gonocidos aio a kind ol nogativo-toloological
ondpoint ol tho ontiio histoiy ol tho Wost. Thiid, tho viow dovolopod in
tho woiks ol Etionno Balilai, anong othois: nodoinity opons up a hold
ol now lioodons, lut at tho sano tino ol now dangois, and thoio is
no ultinato toloological guaiantoo ol tho outcono. Tho contost ionains
opon and undocidod.
Tho staiting point ol Balilai`s toxt on violonco is tho insulhcioncy ol tho
standaid Hogolian-Maixist notion ol 'convoiting` violonco into an instiu-
nont ol histoiical Roason, a loico which logots a now social loination.
;

Tho 'iiiational` liutality ol violonco is thus uujgcncbcn, 'sullatod` in tho
stiict Hogolian sonso, ioducod to a paiticulai 'stain` that contiilutos
to tho ovoiall hainony ol histoiical piogioss. Tho zoth contuiy con-
liontod us with catastiophossono diioctod against Maixist political
loicos, othois gonoiatod ly Maixist ongagonont itsollwhich cannot lo
'iationalizod` in this way. Thoii instiunontalization into tho tools ol tho
Cunning ol Roason is not only othically unaccoptallo lut also thooioti-
cally wiong, idoological in tho stiongost sonso ol tho toin. In his closo
ioading ol Maix, Balilai nonotholoss discoins an oscillation lotwoon this
toloological 'convoision-thooiy` ol violonco, and a nuch noio intoiosting
notion ol histoiy as an opon-ondod piocoss ol antagonistic stiugglos,
whoso hnal 'positivo` outcono is not guaiantood ly any onconpassing
histoiical nocossity.
Balilai aiguos that, loi nocossaiy stiuctuial ioasons, Maixisn is unallo
to think tho oxcoss ol violonco that cannot lo intogiatod into tho naiiat-
ivo ol histoiical Piogioss. Moio spocihcally, it cannot piovido an adoquato
thooiy ol lascisn and Stalinisn and thoii 'oxtiono` outconos, Shoah
and Gulag. Oui task is thoioloio twolold: to doploy a thooiy ol histoiical
violonco as sonothing which cannot lo instiunontalizod ly any politi-
;
Etionno Balilai, 'Gowalt`: ontiy loi !istcriscn-Kritiscncs Wcrtcrbucn dcs Murisnus,
vol. , od. Wollgang Fiitz Haug, Hanluig zooz.
zizrx: )VNBO3JHIUT z
cal agont, which thioatons to ongull this agont itsoll in a soll-dostiuctivo
vicious cyclo, and also to poso tho quostion ol how to tuin tho iovolution-
aiy piocoss itsoll into a civilizing loico. As a countoi-oxanplo, tako tho
piocoss that lod to tho St Baitholonow`s Day Massacio. Cathoiino do
Modici`s goal was linitod and piociso: hois was a Machiavollian plot to
assassinato Adniial do Colignya powoilul Piotostant pushing loi wai
with Spain in tho Nothoilandsand lot tho llano lall on tho ovoi-nighty
Catholic lanily ol do Guiso. Thus Cathoiino sought to onginooi tho lall
ol loth tho housos that posod a nonaco to tho unity ol tho Fionch stato.
But tho lid to play hoi ononios oll against oach othoi dogonoiatod into
an uncontiollod lionzy ol llood. In hoi iuthloss piagnatisn, Cathoiino
was llind to tho passion with which non clung to thoii loliols.
Hannah Aiondt`s insights aio ciucial hoio, onphasizing tho distinction
lotwoon political powoi and tho noio oxoiciso ol violonco. Oiganizations
iun ly diioct non-political authoiityAiny, Chuich, schooliopiosont
oxanplos ol violonco (Ccwu|t, not ol political powoi in tho stiict sonso
ol tho toin.
8
At this point, howovoi, wo nood to iocall tho distinction
lotwoon tho pullic, synlolic law and its olscono supplonont. Tho
notion ol tho olscono doullo-supplonont ol powoi inplios that thoio
is no powoi without violonco. Political spaco is novoi 'puio` lut always
involvos sono kind ol iolianco on pio-political violonco. Ol couiso, tho
iolationship lotwoon political powoi and pio-political violonco is ono ol
nutual inplication. Not only is violonco tho nocossaiy supplonont ol
powoi, lut powoi itsoll is always-alioady at tho ioot ol ovoiy appaiontly
'non-political` iolationship ol violonco. Tho accoptod violonco and diioct
iolationship ol suloidination within tho Ainy, Chuich, lanily and othoi
'non-political` social loins is in itsoll tho ioihcation ol a coitain othico-
political stiugglo. Tho task ol ciitical analysis is to discoin tho hiddon
political piocoss that sustains all thoso 'non` oi 'pio`-political iolation-
ships. In hunan socioty, tho political is tho onconpassing stiuctuiing
piinciplo, so that ovoiy noutialization ol sono paitial contont as 'non-
political` is a political gostuio pur ccc||cncc.
!ununituriun purity
It is within this contoxt that wo can situato tho nost saliont hunan iights
issuo: tho iights ol thoso who aio staiving oi oxposod to nuidoious
8
Hannah Aiondt, On Vic|cncc, Now Yoik ;o.
zo iv q
violonco. Rony Biaunan, who co-oidinatod aid to Saiajovo, has donon-
stiatod how tho voiy piosontation ol tho ciisis thoio as 'hunanitaiian`,
tho voiy iocasting ol a political-nilitaiy conict into hunanitaiian toins,
was sustainod ly an oninontly political choicolasically, to tako tho
Soil sido in tho conict. Tho cololiation ol 'hunanitaiian intoivontion`
in Yugoslavia took tho placo ol a political discouiso, Biaunan aiguos,
thus disqualilying in advanco all conicting dolato.

Fion this paiticulai insight wo nay piollonatizo, at a gonoial lovol, tho

ostonsilly dopoliticizod politics ol hunan iights as tho idoology ol nili-
taiy intoivontionisn soiving spocihc ocononico-political onds. As Wondy
Biown has suggostod apiopos Michaol Ignatioll, such hunanitaiianisn
piosonts itsoll as sonothing ol an anti-politics, a puio dolonco ol tho inno-
cont and tho powoiloss against powoi, a puio dolonco ol tho individual
against innonso and potontially ciuol oi dospotic nachinoiios ol cultuio,
stato, wai, othnic conict, tiilalisn, patiiaichy, and othoi nolilizations oi
instantiations ol colloctivo powoi against individuals.
o

Howovoi, tho quostion is: what kind ol politicization do thoso who intoi-
vono on lohall ol hunan iights sot in notion against tho powois thoy
opposo? Do thoy stand loi a dilloiont loinulation ol justico, oi do thoy
stand in opposition to colloctivo justico piojocts? Foi oxanplo, it is cloai
that tho VT-lod ovoithiow ol Saddan Hussoin, logitinizod in toins
ol onding tho sulloiing ol tho Iiaqi pooplo, was not only notivatod ly
haid-hoadod politico-ocononic intoiosts lut also ioliod on a dotoininato
idoa ol tho political and ocononic conditions undoi which 'lioodon`
was to lo dolivoiod to tho Iiaqi pooplo: liloial-donociatic capitalisn,
insoition into tho glolal naikot oconony, otc. Tho puioly hunanitai-
ian, anti-political politics ol noioly piovonting sulloiing thus anounts
to an inplicit piohilition on olaloiating a positivo colloctivo piojoct ol
socio-political tiansloination.
At an ovon noio gonoial lovol, wo night piollonatizo tho opposition
lotwoon tho univoisal (pio-political hunan iights possossod ly ovoiy
hunan loing 'as such` and tho spocihc political iights ol a citizon, oi
nonloi ol a paiticulai political connunity. In this sonso, Balilai

Rony Biaunan, 'Fion Philanthiopy to Hunanitaiianisn`, Scutn At|untic

Quurtcr|y, vol. o, no. z, SpiingSunnoi zooq, pp. 8 and qo.
o
Wondy Biown, 'Hunan Rights as tho Politics ol Fatalisn`, Scutn At|untic Quurtcr|y,
vol. o, no. z, p. q.
zizrx: )VNBO3JHIUT z;
aiguos loi tho 'iovoisal ol tho histoiical and thooiotical iolationship
lotwoon nan" and citizon"` that piocoods ly 'oxplaining how nan is
nado ly citizonship and not citizonship ly nan.`

Balilai alludos hoio

to Aiondt`s insight on tho condition ol iolugoos:
Tho concoption ol hunan iights lasod upon tho assunod oxistonco ol a
hunan loing as such lioko down at tho voiy nonont whon thoso who
piolossod to loliovo in it woio loi tho hist tino conliontod with pooplo who
had indood lost all othoi qualitios and spocihc iolationships oxcopt that thoy
woio still hunan.
z
This lino, ol couiso, loads stiaight to Aganlon`s notion ol ncnc succr
as a hunan loing ioducod to 'laio lilo`. In a piopoily Hogolian dialoc-
tics ol univoisal and paiticulai, it is piocisoly whon a hunan loing is
dopiivod ol tho paiticulai socio-political idontity that accounts loi his
dotoininato citizonship thatin ono and tho sano novoho coasos
to lo iocognizod oi tioatod as hunan.

Paiadoxically, I an dopiivod ol
hunan iights at tho voiy nonont at which I an ioducod to a hunan
loing 'in gonoial`, and thus locono tho idoal loaioi ol thoso 'univoisal
hunan iights` which lolong to no indopondontly ol ny piolossion, sox,
citizonship, ioligion, othnic idontity, otc.
What, thon, happons to hunan iights whon thoy aio tho iights ol ncnc
succr, ol thoso oxcludod lion tho political connunity, that is, whon thoy
aio ol no uso, sinco thoy aio tho iights ol thoso who, piocisoly, havo no
iights, and aio tioatod as inhunan? Jacquos Ranciio pioposos a sali-
ont dialoctical iovoisal: 'Whon thoy aio ol no uso, ono doos tho sano as
chaiitallo poisons do with thoii old clothos. Ono givos thon to tho pooi.
Thoso iights that appoai to lo usoloss in thoii placo aio sont alioad,
along with nodicino and clothos, to pooplo dopiivod ol nodicino, clothos
and iights.` Novoitholoss, thoy do not locono void, loi 'political nanos
and political placos novoi locono noioly void`. Instoad tho void is hllod
ly sonolody oi sonothing olso:
il thoso who sulloi inhunan iopiossion aio unallo to onact tho hunan
iights that aio thoii last iocouiso, thon sonolody olso has to inhoiit thoii
iights in oidoi to onact thon in thoii placo. This is what is callod tho 'iight to

Etionno Balilai, 'Is a Philosophy ol Hunan Civic Rights Possillo?`, Scutn At|untic
Quurtcr|y, vol. o, no. z, pp. zo.
z
Hannah Aiondt, Tnc Origins cj Tctu|ituriunisn, Now Yoik 8, p. z;.

Soo Gioigio Aganlon, !cnc succr, Stanloid 8.

z8 iv q
hunanitaiian intoiloionco`a iight that sono nations assuno to tho sup-
posod lonoht ol victinizod populations, and voiy olton against tho advico
ol tho hunanitaiian oiganizations thonsolvos. Tho 'iight to hunanitaiian
intoiloionco` night lo dosciilod as a soit ol 'iotuin to sondoi`: tho disusod
iights that had loon sont to tho iightloss aio sont lack to tho sondois.
q
So, to put it in tho Loninist way: what tho 'hunan iights ol Thiid Woild
sulloiing victins` olloctivoly noans today, in tho piodoninant discouiso,
is tho iight ol Wostoin powois thonsolvos to intoivono politically, oco-
nonically, cultuially and nilitaiily in tho Thiid Woild countiios ol thoii
choico, in tho nano ol dolonding hunan iights. Tho ioloionco to Lacan`s
loinula ol connunication (in which tho sondoi gots his own nossago
lack lion tho iocoivoi-addiossoo in its invoitod, i.o. tiuo, loin is voiy
nuch to tho point hoio. In tho ioigning discouiso ol hunanitaiian
intoivontionisn, tho dovolopod Wost is olloctivoly gotting lack lion tho
victinizod Thiid Woild its own nossago in its tiuo loin.
Tho nonont hunan iights aio thus dopoliticizod, tho discouiso doaling
with thon has to chango: tho pio-political opposition ol Good and Evil
nust lo nolilizod anow. Today`s 'now ioign ol othics`, cloaily invokod
in, say, Ignatioll`s woik, thus iolios on a violont gostuio ol dopolitici-
zation, dopiiving tho victinizod othoi ol any political suljoctivization.
And, as Ranciio points out, liloial hunanitaiianisn |u Ignatioll unox-
poctodly noots tho 'iadical` position ol Foucault oi Aganlon with iogaid
to this dopoliticization: thoii notion ol 'liopolitics` as tho culnination ol
Wostoin thought onds up gotting caught in a kind ol 'ontological tiap`,
in which concontiation canps appoai as ontological dostiny: 'oach ol us
would lo in tho situation ol tho iolugoo in a canp. Any dilloionco giows
laint lotwoon donociacy and totalitaiianisn and any political piactico
piovos to lo alioady onsnaiod in tho liopolitical tiap`.

Wo thus aiiivo at a standaid 'anti-ossontialist` position, a kind ol political

voision ol Foucault`s notion ol sox as gonoiatod ly tho nultitudo ol tho
piacticos ol soxuality. 'Man`, tho loaioi ol hunan iights, is gonoiatod ly
a sot ol political piacticos which natoiializo citizonship, 'hunan iights`
aio, as such, a lalso idoological univoisality, which nasks and logitinizos
q
Jacquos Ranciio, 'Who is tho Suljoct ol tho Rights ol Man?`, Scutn At|untic
Quurtcr|y, vol. o, no. z, pp. o;.

Ranciio, 'Who is tho Suljoct ol tho Rights ol Man?`, p. o.

zizrx: )VNBO3JHIUT z
a concioto politics ol Wostoin inpoiialisn, nilitaiy intoivontions and
noo-colonialisn. Is this, howovoi, onough?
Univcrsu|itys rcturn
Tho Maixist synptonal ioading can convincingly dononstiato tho
contont that givos tho notion ol hunan iights its spocihc louigoois idoo-
logical spin: univoisal hunan iights aio olloctivoly tho iight ol whito,
nalo piopoity-ownois to oxchango liooly on tho naikot, oxploit woikois
and wonon, and oxoit political donination. This idontihcation ol tho
paiticulai contont that hogononizos tho univoisal loin is, howovoi, only
hall tho stoiy. Its ciucial othoi hall consists in asking a noio dilhcult,
supplonontaiy quostion: that ol tho onoigonco ol tho loin ol univoi-
sality itsoll. Howin what spocihc histoiical conditionsdoos alstiact
univoisality locono a 'lact ol (social lilo`? In what conditions do indi-
viduals oxpoiionco thonsolvos as suljocts ol univoisal hunan iights?
Thoioin iosidos tho point ol Maix`s analysis ol 'connodity lotishisn`:
in a socioty in which connodity oxchango piodoninatos, individuals in
thoii daily livos iolato to thonsolvos, and to tho oljocts thoy oncountoi,
as to contingont onlodinonts ol alstiact-univoisal notions. What I an,
in toins ol ny concioto social oi cultuial lackgiound, is oxpoiioncod
as contingont, sinco what ultinatoly dohnos no is tho 'alstiact` uni-
voisal capacity to think oi to woik. Likowiso, any oljoct that can satisly
ny dosiio is oxpoiioncod as contingont, sinco ny dosiio is concoivod as
an 'alstiact` loinal capacity, indilloiont to tho nultitudo ol paiticulai
oljocts that nay, lut novoi lully do, satisly it.
Oi tako tho oxanplo ol 'piolossion`: tho nodoin notion ol piolossion
inplios that I oxpoiionco nysoll as an individual who is not diioctly
'loin into` his social iolo. What I will locono doponds on tho intoi-
play lotwoon contingont social ciicunstancos and ny lioo choico. In
this sonso, today`s individual has a piolossion, as oloctiician, waitoi oi
loctuioi, whilo it is noaningloss to clain that tho nodioval soil was a
poasant ly piolossion. In tho spocihc social conditions ol connodity
oxchango and tho glolal naikot oconony, 'alstiaction` loconos a diioct
loatuio ol actual social lilo, tho way concioto individuals lohavo and
iolato to thoii lato and to thoii social suiioundings. In this iogaid Maix
shaios Hogol`s insight, that univoisality loconos 'loi itsoll` only whon
individuals no longoi lully idontily tho koinol ol thoii loing with thoii
paiticulai social situation, only insolai as thoy oxpoiionco thonsolvos
o iv q
as loiovoi 'out ol joint` with it. Tho concioto oxistonco ol univoisality is,
thoioloio, tho individual without a piopoi placo in tho social odihco. Tho
nodo ol appoaianco ol univoisality, its ontoiing into actual oxistonco, is
thus an oxtionoly violont act ol disiupting tho piocoding oiganic poiso.
It is not onough to nako tho woll-woin Maixist point alout tho gap
lotwoon tho idoological appoaianco ol tho univoisal logal loin and tho
paiticulai intoiosts that olloctivoly sustain it. At this lovol tho countoi-
aigunont (nado, anong othois, ly Loloit and Ranciio, that tho loin
is novoi 'noio` loin lut involvos a dynanics ol its own, which loavos
tiacos in tho natoiiality ol social lilo, is lully valid. It was louigoois 'loi-
nal lioodon` that sot in notion tho voiy 'natoiial` political donands
and piacticos ol loninisn oi tiado unionisn. Ranciio`s lasic onphasis
is on tho iadical anliguity ol tho Maixist notion ol tho 'gap` lotwoon
loinal donociacytho Rights ol Man, political lioodonsand tho oco-
nonic ioality ol oxploitation and donination. This gap can lo ioad in
tho standaid 'synptonatic` way: loinal donociacy is a nocossaiy lut
illusoiy oxpiossion ol a concioto social ioality ol oxploitation and class
donination. But it can also lo ioad in tho noio sulvoisivo sonso ol a
tonsion in which tho 'appoaianco` ol cgu|ibcrtc is not a 'noio appoaianco`
lut contains an olhcacy ol its own, which allows it to sot in notion tho
ioaiticulation ol actual socio-ocononic iolations ly way ol thoii piogios-
sivo 'politicization`. Why shouldn`t wonon also lo allowod to voto? Why
shouldn`t woikplaco conditions lo a nattoi ol pullic concoin as woll?
Wo night poihaps apply hoio tho old Lvi-Stiaussian toin ol 'synlolic
olhcioncy`: tho appoaianco ol cgu|ibcrtc is a synlolic hction which, as
such, possossos actual olhcioncy ol its own, tho piopoily cynical tonpta-
tion ol ioducing it to a noio illusion that concoals a dilloiont actuality
should lo iosistod. It is not onough noioly to posit an authontic aiticu-
lation ol a lilo-woild oxpoiionco which is thon ioappiopiiatod ly thoso
in powoi to soivo thoii paiticulai intoiosts oi to iondoi thoii suljocts
docilo cogs in tho social nachino. Much noio intoiosting is tho opposito
piocoss, in which sonothing that was oiiginally an idoological odihco
inposod ly colonizois is all ol a suddon takon ovoi ly thoii suljocts as
a noans to aiticulato thoii 'authontic` giiovancos. A classic caso would
lo tho Viigin ol Guadalupo in nowly colonizod Moxico: with hoi appoai-
anco to a hunllo Indian, Chiistianitywhich until thon soivod as tho
inposod idoology ol tho Spanish colonizoiswas appiopiiatod ly tho
indigonous population as a noans to synlolizo thoii toiiillo plight.
zizrx: )VNBO3JHIUT
Ranciio has pioposod a voiy ologant solution to tho antinony lotwoon
hunan iights, lolonging to 'nan as such`, and tho politicization ol
citizons. Whilo hunan iights cannot lo positod as an unhistoiical 'osson-
tialist` Boyond with iogaid to tho contingont sphoio ol political stiugglos,
as univoisal 'natuial iights ol nan` oxonptod lion histoiy, noithoi
should thoy lo disnissod as a ioihod lotish, tho pioduct ol concioto
histoiical piocossos ol tho politicization ol citizons. Tho gap lotwoon
tho univoisality ol hunan iights and tho political iights ol citizons is
thus not a gap lotwoon tho univoisality ol nan and a spocihc political
sphoio. Rathoi, it 'sopaiatos tho wholo ol tho connunity lion itsoll`.
o

Fai lion loing pio-political, 'univoisal hunan iights` dosignato tho pio-
ciso spaco ol politicization piopoi, what thoy anount to is tho iight to
univoisality as suchtho iight ol a political agont to assoit its iadical
non-coincidonco with itsoll (in its paiticulai idontity, to posit itsoll as
tho 'supoinunoiaiy`, tho ono with no piopoi placo in tho social odihco,
and thus as an agont ol univoisality ol tho social itsoll. Tho paiadox is
thoioloio a voiy piociso ono, and synnotiical to tho paiadox ol univoisal
hunan iights as tho iights ol thoso ioducod to inhunanity. At tho voiy
nonont whon wo tiy to concoivo tho political iights ol citizons without
ioloionco to a univoisal 'nota-political` hunan iights, wo loso politics
itsoll, that is to say, wo ioduco politics to a 'post-political` play ol nogotia-
tion ol paiticulai intoiosts.
o
Ranciio, 'Who is tho Suljoct ol tho Rights ol Man?`, p. o.